integrated circuit silicon chip redirects here for the electronics magazine see silicon chip microchip redirects here for other uses see microchip disambiguation erasable programmable readonly memory eprom integrated circuits these packages have a transparent window that shows the die inside the window is used to erase the memory by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light integrated circuit from an eprom memory microchip showing the memory blocks the supporting circuitry and the fine silver wires which connect the integrated circuit die to the legs of the packaging virtual detail of an integrated circuit through four layers of planarized copper interconnect down to the polysilicon pink wells greyish and substrate green an integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit also referred to as an ic a chip or a microchip is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece or chip of semiconductor material normally silicon the integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip results in circuits that are orders of magnitude smaller cheaper and faster than those constructed of discrete electronic components the ics mass production capability reliability and buildingblock approach to circuit design has ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ics in place of designs using discrete transistors ics are now used in virtually all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of electronics computers mobile phones and other digital home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies made possible by the small size and low cost of ics integrated circuits were made practical by mid20thcentury technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication since their origins in the 1960s the size speed and capacity of chips have progressed enormously driven by technical advances that fit more and more transistors on chips of the same sizea modern chip may have many billions of transistors in an area the size of a human fingernail these advances roughly following moores law make computer chips of today possess millions of times the capacity and thousands of times the speed of the computer chips of the early 1970s ics have two main advantages over discrete circuits cost and performance cost is low because the chips with all their components are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time furthermore packaged ics use much less material than discrete circuits performance is high because the ics components switch quickly and consume comparatively little power because of their small size and close proximity the main disadvantage of ics is the high cost to design them and fabricate the required photomasks this high initial cost means ics are only practical when high production volumes are anticipated terminology an integrated circuit is defined as arguably the first examples of integrated circuits would include the loewe 3nf although far from a monolithic construction it certainly meets the definition given above invention invention of the integrated circuit early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949 when german engineer werner jacobi siemensag showing five transistors on a common substrate in a 3stage amplifier arrangement jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent an immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported the idea of the integrated circuit was conceived by geoffrey dummer 19092002 a radar scientist working for the royal radar establishment of the british ministry of defence dummer presented the idea to the public at the symposium on progress in quality electronic components in washingtondc on 7 may 1952 he gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956 a precursor idea to the ic was to create small ceramic squares wafers each containing a single miniaturized component components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid this idea which seemed very promising in 1957 was proposed to the us army by jack kilby and led to the shortlived micromodule program similar to 1951s project tinkertoy however as the project was gaining momentum kilby came up with a new revolutionary design theic jack kilbys original integrated circuit newly employed by texas instruments kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in july 1958 successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 september 1958 kilby won the 2000 nobel prize in physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit half a year after kilby robert noyce at fairchild semiconductor developed a new variety of integrated circuit more practical than kilbys implementation noyces design was made of silicon whereas kilbys chip was made of germanium noyce credited kurt lehovec of sprague electric for the principle of pnjunction isolation a key concept behind theic this isolation allows each transistor to operate independently despite being parts of the same piece of silicon fairchild semiconductor was also home of the first silicongate ic technology with selfaligned gates the basis of all modern cmos computer chips the technology was developed by italian physicist federico faggin in 1968 in 1970 he joined intel in order to develop the first singlechip central processing unit cpu microprocessor the intel 4004 for which he received the national medal of technology and innovation in 2010 the 4004 was designed by busicoms masatoshi shima and intels ted hoff in 1969 but it was faggins improved design in 1970 that made it a reality advances advances in ic technology primarily smaller features and larger chips have allowed the number of transistors in an integrated circuit to double every two years a trend known as moores law this increased capacity has been used to decrease cost and increase functionality in general as the feature size shrinks almost every aspect of an ics operation improves the cost per transistor and the switching power consumption per transistor goes down while the memory capacity and speed go up through the relationships defined by dennard scaling the expected shrinking of feature sizes and the needed progress in related areas was forecast for many years by the international technology roadmap for semiconductors itrs the final itrs was issued in 2016 and it is being replaced by the international roadmap for devices and systems initially ics were strictly electronic devices the success of ics has led to the integration of other technologies in an attempt to obtain the same advantages of small size and low cost these technologies include mechanical devices optics and sensors chargecoupled devices and the closely related active pixel sensors are chips that are sensitive to light they have largely replaced photographic film in scientific medical and consumer applications billions of these devices are now produced each year for applications such as cellphones tablets and digital cameras this subfield of ics won the nobel prize in 2009 very small mechanical devices driven by electricity can be integrated onto chips a technology known as microelectromechanical systems these devices were developed in the late 1980s and are used in a variety of commercial and military applications examples include dlp projectors inkjet printers and accelerometers and mems gyroscopes used to deploy automobile airbags since the early 2000s the integration of optical functionality optical computing into silicon chips has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry resulting in the successful commercialization of silicon based integrated optical transceivers combining optical devices modulators detectors routing with cmos based electronics integrated optical circuits are also being developed using the emerging field of physics known as photonics integrated circuits are also being developed for sensor applications in medical implants or other bioelectronic devices as of 2018 the vast majority of all transistors are fabricated in a single layer on one side of a chip of silicon in a flat 2dimensional planar process researchers have produced prototypes of several promising alternatives such as various approaches to stacking several layers of transistors to make a threedimensional integrated circuit 3dic such as throughsilicon via monolithic 3d and other methodologies transistors built from other materials graphene transistors molybdenite transistors carbon nanotube fieldeffect transistor gallium nitride transistor transistorlike nanowire electronic devices organic fieldeffect transistor etc fabricating transistors over the entire surface of a small sphere of silicon modifications to the substrate typically to make flexible transistors for a flexible display or other flexible electronics possibly leading to a rollaway computer design electronic design automation and hardware description language the cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high normally in the multiple tens of millions of dollars therefore it only makes economic sense to produce integrated circuit products with high production volume so the nonrecurring engineering nre costs are spread across typically millions of production units modern semiconductor chips have billions of components and are too complex to be designed by hand software tools to help the designer are essential electronic design automation eda also referred to as electronic computeraided design ecad is a category of software tools for designing electronic systems including integrated circuits the tools work together in a design flow that engineers use to design and analyze entire semiconductor chips types a cmos 4511 ic in a dip integrated circuits can be classified into analog consisting of both analog and digital signaling on the same ic digital integrated circuits can contain anywhere from one of logic gates flipflops multiplexers and other circuits in a few square millimeters the small size of these circuits allows high speed low power dissipation and reduced manufacturing cost compared with boardlevel integration these digital ics typically microprocessors dsps and microcontrollers work using boolean algebra to process one and zero signals the die from an intel 8742 an 8bit microcontroller that includes a cpu running at 12mhz 128 bytes of ram 2048 bytes of eprom and io in the same chip among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or cores which control everything from personal computers and cellular phones to digital microwave ovens digital memory chips and applicationspecific integrated circuits asics are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern information society in the 1980s programmable logic devices were developed these devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer this allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different lsitype functions such as logic gates adders and registers current devices called fieldprogrammable gate arrays fpgas can as of 2016 implement the equivalent of millions of gates in parallel and operate at frequencies up to 1 ghz analog ics such as sensors power management circuits and operational amplifiers opamps work by processing continuous signals they perform functions like amplification active filtering demodulation and mixing analog ics ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch ics can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as analogtodigital converters and digitaltoanalog converters such mixedsignal circuits offer smaller size and lower cost but must carefully account for signal interference prior to the late 1990s radios could not be fabricated in the same lowcost cmos processes as microprocessors but since 1998 a large number of radio chips have been developed using cmos processes examples include intels dect cordless phone or 80211 wifi chips created by atheros and other companies modern electronic component distributors often further subcategorize the huge variety of integrated circuits now available digital ics are further subcategorized as logic ics memory chips interface ics level shifters serializerdeserializer etc power management ics and programmable devices analog ics are further subcategorized as linear ics and radio frequency rf ics mixedsignal integrated circuits are further subcategorized as data acquisition ics including ad converters da converter digital potentiometers and clocktiming ics manufacturing fabrication semiconductor fabrication rendering of a small standard cell with three metal layers dielectric has been removed the sandcolored structures are metal interconnect with the vertical pillars being contacts typically plugs of tungsten the reddish structures are polysilicon gates and the solid at the bottom is the crystalline silicon bulk schematic structure of a cmos chip as built in the early 2000s the graphic shows lddmisfets on an soi substrate with five metallization layers and solder bump for flipchip bonding it also shows the section for feol frontend of line beol backend of line and first parts of backend process the semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely materials for a solidstate vacuum tube starting with copper oxide proceeding to germanium then silicon the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s today monocrystalline silicon is the main substrate used for ics although some iiiv compounds of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like leds lasers solar cells and the highestspeed integrated circuits it took decades to perfect methods of creating crystals without defects in semiconducting materials crystal structure semiconductor ics are fabricated in a planar process which includes three key process steps imaging deposition and etching the main process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning monocrystal silicon wafers or for special applications silicon on sapphire or gallium arsenide wafers are used as the substrate photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon insulators or metal typically aluminium or copper tracks deposited on them dopants are impurities intentionally introduced to a semiconductor to modulate its electromagnetic properties doping is the process of adding dopants to a semiconductor material integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers each defined by photolithography and normally shown in different colors some layers mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate called diffusion layers some define where additional ions are implanted implant layers some define the conductors polysilicon or metal layers and some define the connections between the conducting layers via or contact layers all components are constructed from a specific combination of these layers in a selfaligned cmos process a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer polysilicon or metal crosses a diffusion layer capacitive structures in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor are formed according to the area of the plates with insulating material between the plates capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on ics meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form onchip resistors though most logic circuits do not need any resistors the ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width combined with its sheet resistivity determines the resistance more rarely inductive structures can be built as tiny onchip coils or simulated by gyrators since a cmos device only draws current on the transition between logic states cmos devices consume much less current than bipolar junction transistor devices a randomaccess memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit the highest density devices are thus memories but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip see the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image although the structures are intricate with widths which have been shrinking for decades the layers remain much thinner than the device widths the layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process although light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to expose a layer of material as they would be too large for the features thus photons of higher frequencies typically ultraviolet are used to create the patterns for each layer because each feature is so small electron microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment ate in a process known as wafer testing or wafer probing the wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks each of which is called a die each good die plural dice dies or die is then connected into a package using aluminium or gold bond wires which are thermosonically bonded to pads usually found around the edge of the die thermosonic bonding was first introduced by a coucoulas which provided a reliable means of forming these vital electrical connections to the outside world after packaging the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ate used during wafer probing industrial ct scanning can also be used test cost can account for over 25 of the cost of fabrication on lowercost products but can be negligible on lowyielding larger or highercost devices as of 2016 the cost of a fabrication facility rises over time because of increased complexity of new products this is known as rocks law today the most advanced processes employ the following techniques the wafers are up to 300mm in diameter wider than a common dinner plate as of 2016 copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminum for interconnects low dielectric insulators silicon on insulator soi strained silicon in a process used by ibm known as strained silicon directly on insulator ssdoi multigate devices such as trigate transistors being manufactured by intel from 2011 in their 22nm process packaging integrated circuit packaging a soviet msi nmos chip made in 1977 part of a fourchip calculator set designed in 1970 the earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual inline package dip first in ceramic and later in plastic in the 1980s pin counts of vlsi circuits exceeded the practical limit for dip packaging leading to pin grid array pga and leadless chip carrier lcc packages surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gullwing or jlead as exemplified by the smalloutline integrated circuit soic package a carrier which occupies an area about 3050 less than an equivalent dip and is typically 70 thinner this package has gull wing leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0050inches in the late 1990s plastic quad flat pack pqfp and thin smalloutline package tsop packages became the most common for high pin count devices though pga packages are still used for highend microprocessors ball grid array bga packages have existed since the 1970s flipchip ball grid array packages which allow for much higher pin count than other package types were developed in the 1990s in an fcbga package the die is mounted upsidedown flipped and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printedcircuit board rather than by wires fcbga packages allow an array of inputoutput signals called areaio to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery bga devices have the advantage of not needing a dedicated socket but are much harder to replace in case of device failure intel transitioned away from pga to land grid array lga and bga beginning in 2004 with the last pga socket released in 2014 for mobile platforms as of 2018 traces going out of the die through the package and into the printed circuit board have very different electrical properties compared to onchip signals they require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself when multiple dies are put in one package the result is a system in package abbreviated sip a multichip module mcm is created by combining multiple dies on a small substrate often made of ceramic the distinction between a large mcm and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy chip labeling and manufacture date most integrated circuits are large enough to include identifying information four common sections are the manufacturers name or logo the part number a part production batch number and serial number and a fourdigit datecode to identify when the chip was manufactured extremely small surface mount technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturers lookup table to find the chip characteristics the manufacturing date is commonly represented as a twodigit year followed by a twodigit week code such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983 or approximately in october 1983 intellectual property integrated circuit layout design protection the possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for the introduction of legislation for the protection of layoutdesigns the semiconductor chip protection act of 1984 established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to produce integrated circuits a diplomatic conference was held at washington dc in 1989 which adopted a treaty on intellectual property in respect of integrated circuits ipic treaty the treaty on intellectual property in respect of integrated circuits also called washington treaty or ipic treaty signed at washington on 26 may 1989 is currently not in force but was partially integrated into the trips agreement national laws protecting ic layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries including japan other developments this article needs to be updated please update this section to reflect recent events or newly available information october 2018further information heat generation in integrated circuits future developments seem to follow the multicore multimicroprocessor paradigm already used by intel and amd multicore processors rapport inc and ibm started shipping the kc256 in 2006 a 256core microprocessor intel as recently as februaryaugust 2011 unveiled a prototype not for commercial sale chip that bears 80 cores each core is capable of handling its own task independently of the others this is in response to heatversusspeed limit that is about to be reached generations in the early days of simple integrated circuits the technologys large scale limited each chip to only a few transistors and the low degree of integration meant the design process was relatively simple manufacturing yields were also quite low by todays standards as the technology progressed millions then billions of transistors could be placed on one chip and good designs required thorough planning giving rise to the field of electronic design automation or eda name signification year transistors number logic gates number ssi smallscale integration 1964 1 to 10 1 to 12 msi mediumscale integration 1968 10 to 500 13 to 99 lsi largescale integration 1971 500 to 20 000 100 to 9999 vlsi very largescale integration 1980 20 000 to 1 000 000 10 000 to 99 999 ulsi ultralargescale integration 1984 1 000 000 and more 100 000 and more ssi msi and lsi the first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors early digital circuits containing tens of transistors provided a few logic gates and early linear ics such as the plessey sl201 or the philips taa320 had as few as two transistors the number of transistors in an integrated circuit has increased dramatically since then the term large scale integration lsi was first used by ibm scientist rolf landauer when describing the theoretical concept that term gave rise to the terms smallscale integration ssi mediumscale integration msi verylargescale integration vlsi and ultralargescale integration ulsi the early integrated circuits were ssi ssi circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects and aerospace projects helped inspire development of the technology both the minuteman missile and apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems although the apollo guidance computer led and motivated integratedcircuit technology it was the minuteman missile that forced it into massproduction the minuteman missile program and various other united states navy programs accounted for the total 4 million integrated circuit market in 1962 and by 1968 us government spending on space and defense still accounted for 37 of the 312 million total production the demand by the us government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until costs fell enough to allow ic firms to penetrate the industrial market and eventually the consumer market the average price per integrated circuit dropped from 5000 in 1962 to 233 in 1968 integrated circuits began to appear in consumer products by the turn of the 1970s decade a typical application was fm intercarrier sound processing in television receivers the first mos chips were smallscale integration chips for nasa satellites the next step in the development of integrated circuits taken in the late 1960s introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip called mediumscale integration msi in 1964 frank wanlass demonstrated a singlechip 16bit shift register he designed with a thenincredible 120 transistors on a single chip msi devices were attractive economically because while they cost a little more to produce than ssi devices they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards less assembly work because of fewer separate components and a number of other advantages further development driven by the same economic factors led to largescale integration lsi in the mid1970s with tens of thousands of transistors per chip the masks used to process and manufacture ssi msi and early lsi and vlsi devices such as the microprocessors of the early 1970s were mostly created by hand often using rubylithtape or similar for large or complex ics such as memories or processors this was often done by specially hired professionals in charge of circuit layout placed under the supervision of a team of engineers who would also along with the circuit designers inspect and verify the correctness and completeness of each mask integrated circuits such as 1kbit rams calculator chips and the first microprocessors that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s had under 4000 transistors true lsi circuits approaching 10000 transistors began to be produced around 1974 for computer main memories and secondgeneration microprocessors some ssi and msi chips like discrete transistors are still massproduced both to maintain old equipment and build new devices that require only a few gates the 7400 series of ttl chips for example has become a de facto standard and remains in production vlsi verylargescale integration upper interconnect layers on an intel 80486dx2 microprocessor die the final step in the development process starting in the 1980s and continuing through the present was verylargescale integration vlsi the development started with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s as of 2016 transistor counts continue to grow beyond ten billion transistors per chip multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density manufacturers moved to smaller design rules and cleaner fabrication facilities so that they could make chips with more transistors and maintain adequate yield the path of process improvements was summarized by the international technology roadmap for semiconductors itrs which has since been succeeded by the international roadmap for devices and systems irds electronic design tools improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time the more energyefficient cmos replaced nmos and pmos avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption modern vlsi devices contain so many transistors layers interconnections and other features that it is no longer feasible to check the masks or do the original design by hand instead engineers use eda tools to perform most functional verification work in 1986 the first onemegabit randomaccess memory ram chips were introduced containing more than one million transistors microprocessor chips passed the milliontransistor mark in 1989 and the billiontransistor mark in 2005 ulsi wsi soc and 3dic to reflect further growth of the complexity the term ulsi that stands for ultralargescale integration was proposed for chips of more than 1 million transistors waferscale integration wsi is a means of building very large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single superchip through a combination of large size and reduced packaging wsi could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems notably massively parallel supercomputers the name is taken from the term verylargescale integration the current state of the art when wsi was being developed a systemonachip soc or soc is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer or other system are included on a single chip the design of such a device can be complex and costly and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some elements further signal sources and destinations are physically closer on die reducing the length of wiring and therefore latency transmission power costs and waste heat from communication between modules on the same chip this has led to an exploration of socalled networkonchip noc devices which apply systemonchip design methodologies to digital communication networks as opposed to traditional bus architectures a threedimensional integrated circuit 3dic has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit communication between layers uses ondie signaling so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation silicon labelling and graffiti to allow identification during production most silicon chips will have a serial number in one corner it is also common to add the manufacturers logo ever since ics were created some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious nonfunctional images or words these are sometimes referred to as chip art silicon art silicon graffiti or silicon doodling ics and ic families the 555 timer ic the 741 operational amplifier 7400 series ttl logic building blocks 4000 series the cmos counterpart to the 7400 series see also 74hc00 series intel 4004 the worlds first microprocessor which led to the famous 8080 cpu and then the ibm pcs 8088 80286 486 etc the mos technology 6502 and zilog z80 microprocessors used in many home computers of the early 1980s the motorola 6800 series of computerrelated chips leading to the 68000 and 88000 series used in some apple computers and in the 1980s commodore amiga series the lmseries of analog integrated circuits electronics portal integrated circuit development integrated injection logic ion implantation monolithic microwave integrated circuit multithreshold cmos photonic integrated circuit silicongermanium sound chip spice veendrick h j m 2017 nanometer cmos ics from basics to asics springer isbn9783319475950 baker r j 2010 cmos circuit design layout and simulation 3rd ed wileyieee isbn9780470881323 marsh stephen p 2006 practical mmic design artech house isbn9781596930360 camenzind hans 2005 designing analog chips pdf virtual bookworm isbn9781589397187 archived from the original pdf on june 12 2017 hans camenzind invented the 555 timer hodges david jackson horace saleh resve 2003 analysis and design of digital integrated circuits mcgrawhill isbn9780072283655 rabaey j m chandrakasan a nikolic b 2003 digital integrated circuits 2nd ed pearson isbn0130909963 mead carver conway lynn 1980 introduction to vlsi systems addison wesley publishing company isbn9780201043587 wikimedia commons has media related to integrated circuit general the first monolithic integrated circuits a large chart listing ics by generic number including access to most of the datasheets for the parts the history of the integrated circuit at nobelprizeorg patents us3138743 miniaturized electronic circuit j s kilby us3138747 integrated semiconductor circuit device r f stewart us3261081 method of making miniaturized electronic circuits j s kilby us3434015 capacitor for miniaturized electronic circuits or the like j s kilby integrated circuit die manufacturing ic die photography a gallery of ic die photographs zeptobars yet another gallery of ic die photographs silicon chip wafer fab mailbag on youtube a look at some equipment and wafers used in the manufacturing of silicon chip wafers vtedigital electronicscomponents combinational logic sequential logic integrated circuit ic logic gate theory digital signal boolean algebra logic synthesis logic in computer science computer architecture digital signal digital signal processing circuit minimization switching circuit theory design logic synthesis place and route placement routing registertransfer level hardware description language highlevel synthesis formal equivalence checking synchronous logic asynchronous logic finitestate machine hierarchical state machine applications computer hardware hardware acceleration digital audio radio digital photography digital telephone digital video cinema television electronic literature design issues metastability runt pulse vteelectronic componentssemiconductor devices avalanche diode transistor tetrode transistor pentode transistor memistor memristor bipolar junction transistor bjt finfet cmos mosfet jfet fieldeffect transistor fet quantum circuit constantcurrent diode cld crd darlington transistor diac diode heterostructure barrier varactor insulatedgate bipolar transistor igbt integrated circuit ic lightemitting diode led photodetector photodiode solaristor pin diode programmable unijunction transistor put schottky diode silicon controlled rectifier scr thyristor triac unijunction transistor ujt varicap zener diode voltage regulators linear regulator lowdropout regulator switching regulator buck boost buckboost splitpi uk sepic charge pump switched capacitor vacuum tubes acorn tube audion beam tetrode barretter compactron diode fleming valve nonode nuvistor pentagrid hexode heptode octode pentode photomultiplier phototube tetrode triode vacuum tubes rf backwardwave oscillator bwo cavity magnetron crossedfield amplifier cfa gyrotron inductive output tube iot klystron maser sutton tube travelingwave tube twt cathode ray tubes beam deflection tube charactron iconoscope magic eye tube monoscope selectron tube storage tube trochotron video camera tube williams tube gasfilled tubes cold cathode crossatron dekatron ignitron krytron mercuryarc valve neon lamp nixie tube thyratron trigatron voltageregulator tube adjustable potentiometer digital variable capacitor varicap passive connector audio and video electrical power rf electrolytic detector ferrite fuse resettable resistor switch thermistor transformer varistor wire wollaston wire reactive capacitor types ceramic resonator crystal oscillator inductor parametron relay reed relay mercury switch vtesemiconductor packagesdiode do204 do7 do35 do41 do213 melf do214 sma smb smc sod sod123 sod323 sod523 sod923 transistor sot tsot to3 th panel to5 th to18 th to39 th to66 th panel to92 th to126 th panel to202 th panel to220 th panel to247 th panel to251 ipak smt to252 dpak smt to262 i2pak smt to263 d2pak smt to273 super220 smt to274 super247 smt single row sip sil dual row dfn dip dil flat pack so soic sop ssop tsop tssop zip quad row lcc plcc qfn qfp quip quil grid array bga ewlb lga pga wafer cob cof cog csp flip chip pop qp uicc wlcsp wlp related topics electronic packaging integrated circuit packaging list of integrated circuit packaging types printed circuit board surfacemount technology throughhole technology note its relatively common to find packages that contain other components than their designated ones such as diodes or voltage regulators in transistor packages etc vtemajor fields of computer sciencenote this template roughly follows the 2012 acm computing classification systemhardware printed circuit board peripheral integrated circuit very large scale integration systems on chip socs energy consumption green computing electronic design automation hardware acceleration computer systemsorganization computer architecture embedded system realtime computing dependability networks network architecture network protocol network components network scheduler network performance evaluation network service software organization interpreter middleware virtual machine operating system software quality software notationsand tools programming paradigm programming language compiler domainspecific language modeling language software framework integrated development environment software configuration management software library software repository software development software development process requirements analysis software design software construction software deployment software maintenance programming team opensource model theory of computation model of computation formal language automata theory computational complexity theory logic semantics algorithms algorithm design analysis of algorithms algorithmic efficiency randomized algorithm computational geometry mathematicsof computing discrete mathematics probability statistics mathematical software information theory mathematical analysis numerical analysis informationsystems database management system information storage systems enterprise information system social information systems geographic information system decision support system process control system multimedia information system data 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