information security this article is part of a series oninformation security related security categories internet security cyberwarfare computer security mobile security network security threats computer crime vulnerability eavesdropping malware spyware ransomware trojans viruses worms rootkits bootkits keyloggers screen scrapers exploits backdoors logic bombs payloads denial of service defenses computer access control application security antivirus software secure coding secure by default secure by design secure operating systems authentication multifactor authentication authorization datacentric security encryption firewall intrusion detection system mobile secure gateway runtime application selfprotection rasp vte information security sometimes shortened to infosec is the practice of preventing unauthorized access use disclosure disruption modification inspection recording or destruction of information the information or data may take any form eg electronic or physical this is largely achieved through a multistep risk management process that identifies assets threat sources vulnerabilities potential impacts and possible controls followed by assessment of the effectiveness of the risk management plan to standardize this discipline academics and professionals collaborate and seek to set basic guidance policies and industry standards on password antivirus software firewall encryption software legal liability and useradministrator training standards overview at the core of information security is information assurance the act of maintaining the confidentiality integrity and availability cia of information ensuring that information is not compromised in any way when critical issues arise with information assurance now typically being dealt with by information technology it security specialists these specialists apply information security to technology most often some form of computer system it is worthwhile to note that a computer does not necessarily mean a home desktop a computer is any device with a processor and some memory such devices can range from nonnetworked standalone devices as simple as calculators to networked mobile computing devices such as smartphones and tablet computers it security specialists are almost always found in any major enterpriseestablishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger businesses they are responsible for keeping all of the technology within the company secure from malicious cyber attacks that often attempt to acquire critical private information or gain control of the internal systems the field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years it offers many areas for specialization including securing networks and allied infrastructure securing applications and databases security testing information systems auditing business continuity planning electronic record discovery and digital forensics information security professionals are very stable in their employment as of 2013 threats information security threats come in many different forms some of the most common threats today are software attacks theft of intellectual property identity theft theft of equipment or information sabotage and information extortion most people have experienced software attacks of some sort viruses are prone to theft and have also become far more desirable as the amount of data capacity increases sabotage usually consists of the destruction of an organizations website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers information extortion consists of theft of a companys property or information as an attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner as with ransomware there are many ways to help protect yourself from some of these attacks but one of the most functional precautions is user carefulness governments military corporations financial institutions hospitals and private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees customers products research and financial status should confidential information about a business customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a black hat hacker a business and its customers could suffer widespread irreparable financial loss as well as damage to the companys reputation from a business perspective information security must be balanced against cost the gordonloeb model provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern for the individual information security has a significant effect on privacy which is viewed very differently in various cultures responses to threats possible responses to a security threat or risk are reducemitigate implement safeguards and countermeasures to eliminate vulnerabilities or block threats assigntransfer place the cost of the threat onto another entity or organization such as purchasing insurance or outsourcing accept evaluate if the cost of the countermeasure outweighs the possible cost of loss due to the threat history since the early days of communication diplomats and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some means of detecting tampering julius caesar is credited with the invention of the caesar cipher c 50 bc which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands however for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls in the midnineteenth century more complex classification systems were developed to allow governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity for example the british government codified this to some extent with the publication of the official secrets act in 1889 the end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twentyfirst century saw rapid advancements in telecommunications computing hardware and software and data encryption the availability of smaller more powerful and less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within the reach of small business and the home user these computers quickly became interconnected through the internet the rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business conducted through the internet along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store process and transmit the academic disciplines of computer security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems definitions information security attributes or qualities ie confidentiality integrity and availability cia information systems are composed in three main portions hardware software and communications with the purpose to help identify and apply information security industry standards as mechanisms of protection and prevention at three levels or layers physical personal and organizational essentially procedures or policies are implemented to tell administrators users and operators how to use products to ensure information security within the organizations various definitions of information security are suggested below summarized from different sources preservation of confidentiality integrity and availability of information note in addition other properties such as authenticity accountability nonrepudiation and reliability can also be involved isoiec 270002009 the protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access use disclosure disruption modification or destruction in order to provide confidentiality integrity and availability cnss 2010 ensures that only authorized users confidentiality have access to accurate and complete information integrity when required availability isaca 2008 information security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation pipkin 2000 information security is a risk management discipline whose job is to manage the cost of information risk to the business mcdermott and geer 2001 a wellinformed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance anderson j 2003 information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing information to unauthorized parties venter and eloff 2003 information security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all available types technical organizational humanoriented and legal in order to keep information in all its locations within and outside the organizations perimeter and consequently information systems where information is created processed stored transmitted and destroyed free from threatsthreats to information and information systems may be categorized and a corresponding security goal may be defined for each category of threats a set of security goals identified as a result of a threat analysis should be revised periodically to ensure its adequacy and conformance with the evolving environment the currently relevant set of security goals may include confidentiality integrity availability privacy authenticity trustworthiness nonrepudiation accountability and auditability cherdantseva and hilton 2013 basic principles key concepts poster promoting information security by the russian ministry of defence the cia triad of confidentiality integrity and availability is at the heart of information security in 1992 and revised in 2002 the oecds guidelines for the security of information systems and networks proposed 33 principles from each of these derived guidelines and practices in 1998 donn parker proposed an alternative model for the classic cia triad that he called the six atomic elements of information the elements are confidentiality possession integrity authenticity availability and utility the merits of the parkerian hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals in 2011 the open group published the information security management standard oism3 neither of these models are widely adopted confidentiality in information security confidentiality is the property that information is not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals entities or processes integrity in information security data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its entire lifecycle this means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner this is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases although it can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic acid model of transaction processing information security systems typically provide message integrity along side to confidentiality availability for any information system to serve its purpose the information must be available when it is needed this means the computing systems used to store and process the information the security controls used to protect it and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly high availability systems aim to remain available at all times preventing service disruptions due to power outages hardware failures and system upgrades ensuring availability also involves preventing denialofservice attacks such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system essentially forcing it to shut down in the realm of information security availability can often be viewed as one of the most important parts of a successful information security program ultimately endusers need to be able to perform job functions by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an organizations stakeholders expect this can involve topics such as proxy configurations outside web access the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send emails executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security and look at availability as an easy fix but this often requires collaboration from many different organizational teams such as network operations development operations incident response and policychange management a successful information security team involves many different key roles to mesh and align for the cia triad to be provided effectively cia triad methodology nonrepudiation in law nonrepudiation implies ones intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract it also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction it is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in nonrepudiation efforts the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology it is not for instance sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the senders private key and thus only the sender could have sent the message and nobody else could have altered it in transit data integrity the alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised the fault for these violations may or may not lie with the sender and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity as such the sender may repudiate the message because authenticity and integrity are prerequisites for nonrepudiation risk management risk management the certified information systems auditor cisa review manual 2006 provides the following definition of risk management risk management is the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives and deciding what countermeasures if any to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level based on the value of the information resource to the organization there are two things in this definition that may need some clarification first the process of risk management is an ongoing iterative process it must be repeated indefinitely the business environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day second the choice of countermeasures controls used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity cost effectiveness of the countermeasure and the value of the informational asset being protected risk analysis and risk evaluation processes have their limitations since when security incidents occur they emerge in a context and their rarity and uniqueness give rise to unpredictable threats the analysis of these phenomena which are characterized by breakdowns surprises and sideeffects requires a theoretical approach that is able to examine and interpret subjectively the detail of each incident risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset or the loss of the asset a vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset a threat is anything manmade or act of nature that has the potential to cause harm the likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk when a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm it has an impact in the context of information security the impact is a loss of availability integrity and confidentiality and possibly other losses lost income loss of life loss of real property it should be pointed out that it is not possible to identify all risks nor is it possible to eliminate all risk the remaining risk is called residual risk a risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed the assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available the analysis may use quantitative analysis research has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user operator designer or other human the isoiec 270022005 code of practice for information security management recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment security policy organization of information security asset management human resources security physical and environmental security communications and operations management access control information systems acquisition development and maintenance information security incident management business continuity management and regulatory compliance in broad terms the risk management process consists of identification of assets and estimating their value include people buildings hardware software data electronic print other supplies conduct a threat assessment include acts of nature acts of war accidents malicious acts originating from inside or outside the organization conduct a vulnerability assessment and for each vulnerability calculate the probability that it will be exploited evaluate policies procedures standards training physical security quality control technical security calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset use qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis identify select and implement appropriate controls provide a proportional response consider productivity cost effectiveness and value of the asset evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures ensure the controls provide the required cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity for any given risk management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the asset the relative low frequency of occurrence and the relative low impact on the business or leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to reduce the risk in some cases the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or outsourcing to another business the reality of some risks may be disputed in such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk security controls security controls selecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down risk to acceptable levels control selection should follow and should be based on the risk assessment controls can vary in nature but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the confidentiality integrity or availability of information isoiec 27001 has defined controls in different areas organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of the organization isoiec 27002 offers a guideline for organizational information security standards administrative administrative controls consist of approved written policies procedures standards and guidelines administrative controls form the framework for running the business and managing people they inform people on how the business is to be run and how daytoday operations are to be conducted laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of administrative control because they inform the business some industry sectors have policies procedures standards and guidelines that must be followed the payment card industry data security standard pci dss required by visa and mastercard is such an example other examples of administrative controls include the corporate security policy password policy hiring policies and disciplinary policies administrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls which are of paramount importance logical logical controls also called technical controls use software and data to monitor and control access to information and computing systems passwords network and hostbased firewalls network intrusion detection systems access control lists and data encryption are examples of logical controls an important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege which requires that an individual program or system process not be granted any more access privileges than are necessary to perform the task a blatant example of the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is logging into windows as user administrator to read email and surf the web violations of this principle can also occur when an individual collects additional access privileges over time this happens when employees job duties change employees are promoted to a new position or employees are transferred to another department the access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access privileges which may no longer be necessary or appropriate physical physical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities they also monitor and control access to and from such facilities and include doors locks heating and air conditioning smoke and fire alarms fire suppression systems cameras barricades fencing security guards cable locks etc separating the network and workplace into functional areas are also physical controls an important physical control that is frequently overlooked is separation of duties which ensures that an individual can not complete a critical task by himself for example an employee who submits a request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check an applications programmer should not also be the server administrator or the database administrator these roles and responsibilities must be separated from one another defense in depth the onion model of defense in depth defense in depth computing information security must protect information throughout its lifespan from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal of the information the information must be protected while in motion and while at rest during its lifetime information may pass through many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems there are many different ways the information and information systems can be threatened to fully protect the information during its lifetime each component of the information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms the building up layering on and overlapping of security measures is called defense in depth in contrast to a metal chain which is famously only as strong as its weakest link the defense in depth strategy aims at a structure where should one defensive measure fail other measures will continue to provide protection recall the earlier discussion about administrative controls logical controls and physical controls the three types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense in depth strategy with this approach defense in depth can be conceptualized as three distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the other additional insight into defense in depth can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of an onion with data at the core of the onion people the next outer layer of the onion and network security hostbased security and application security forming the outermost layers of the onion both perspectives are equally valid and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense in depth strategy security classification for information an important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection this requires information to be assigned a security classification the first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified next develop a classification policy the policy should describe the different classification labels define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label and list the required security controls for each classification some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information the information systems audit and control association isaca and its business model for information security also serves as a tool for security professionals to examine security from a systems perspective creating an environment where security can be managed holistically allowing actual risks to be addressed the type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the organization with examples being in the business sector labels such as public sensitive private confidential in the government sector labels such as unclassified unofficial protected confidential secret top secret and their nonenglish equivalents in crosssectoral formations the traffic light protocol which consists of white green amber and red all employees in the organization as well as business partners must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification the classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are followed in their right procedures access control access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information the computer programs and in many cases the computers that process the information must also be authorized this requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information the sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be the foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication access control is generally considered in three steps identification authentication and authorization identification identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is if a person makes the statement hello my name is john doe they are making a claim of who they are however their claim may or may not be true before john doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be john doe really is john doe typically the claim is in the form of a username by entering that username you are claiming i am the person the username belongs to authentication authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity when john doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal he tells the bank teller he is john doe a claim of identity the bank teller asks to see a photo id so he hands the teller his drivers license the bank teller checks the license to make sure it has john doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be john doe if the photo and name match the person then the teller has authenticated that john doe is who he claimed to be similarly by entering the correct password the user is providing evidence that heshe is the person the username belongs to there are three different types of information that can be used for authentication something you know things such as a pin a password or your mothers maiden name something you have a drivers license or a magnetic swipe card something you are biometrics including palm prints fingerprints voice prints and retina eye scans strong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information twofactor authentication the username is the most common form of identification on computer systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication usernames and passwords have served their purpose but they are increasingly inadequate usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms such as timebased onetime password algorithms authorization after a person program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed to perform run view create delete or change this is called authorization authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures the policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed by whom and under what conditions the access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms the access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three approaches to access control or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches the nondiscretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration the access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function role in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform the discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources in the mandatory access control approach access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include rolebased access control available in many advanced database management systems simple file permissions provided in the unix and windows operating systems group policy objects provided in windows network systems and kerberos radius tacacs and the simple access lists used in many firewalls and routers to be effective policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld effective policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions the us treasurys guidelines for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information for example states that all failed and successful authentication and access attempts must be logged and all access to information must leave some type of audit trail also the needtoknow principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control this principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions this principle is used in the government when dealing with difference clearances even though two employees in different departments have a topsecret clearance they must have a needtoknow in order for information to be exchanged within the needtoknow principle network administrators grant the employee the least amount of privileges to prevent employees from accessing more than what they are supposed to needtoknow helps to enforce the confidentialityintegrityavailability triad needtoknow directly impacts the confidential area of the triad cryptography cryptography information security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user this process is called encryption information that has been encrypted rendered unusable can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user who possesses the cryptographic key through the process of decryption cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the information is in transit either electronically or physically and while information is in storage cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well including improved authentication methods message digests digital signatures nonrepudiation and encrypted network communications older less secure applications such as telnet and file transfer protocol ftp are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as secure shell ssh that use encrypted network communications wireless communications can be encrypted using protocols such as wpawpa2 or the older and less secure wep wired communications such as itut ghn are secured using aes for encryption and x1035 for authentication and key exchange software applications such as gnupg or pgp can be used to encrypt data files and email cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industryaccepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography the length and strength of the encryption key is also an important consideration a key that is weak or too short will produce weak encryption the keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information they must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction and they must be available when needed public key infrastructure pki solutions address many of the problems that surround key management process the terms reasonable and prudent person due care and due diligence have been used in the fields of finance securities and law for many years in recent years these terms have found their way into the fields of computing and information security in the business world stockholders customers business partners and governments have the expectation that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business practices and in compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements this is often described as the reasonable and prudent person rule a prudent person takes due care to ensure that everything necessary is done to operate the business by sound business principles and in a legal ethical manner a prudent person is also diligent mindful attentive and ongoing in their due care of the business in the field of information security harris offers the following definitions of due care and due diligence due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company its resources and employees and continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and operational attention should be made to two important points in these definitions first in due care steps are taken to show this means that the steps can be verified measured or even produce tangible artifacts second in due diligence there are continual activities this means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms and these activities are ongoing organizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information security the duty of care risk analysis standard docra provides principles and practices for evaluating risk it considers all parties that could be affected by those risks docra helps evaluate safeguards if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while presenting a reasonable burden with increased data breach litigation companies must balance security controls compliance and its mission security governance see also information security governance the software engineering institute at carnegie mellon university in a publication titled governing for enterprise security ges implementation guide defines characteristics of effective security governance these include an enterprisewide issue leaders are accountable viewed as a business requirement riskbased roles responsibilities and segregation of duties defined addressed and enforced in policy adequate resources committed staff aware and trained a development life cycle requirement planned managed measurable and measured reviewed and audited incident response plans an incident response plan that addresses how discovered breaches in security is also vital it should include selection of team members definition of roles responsibilities and lines of authority definition of a security incident definition of a reportable incident training detection classification escalation containment eradication documentation change management change management itsm this section may have been copied and pasted from another location possibly in violation of wikipedias copyright policy please review httpsemploymentblurtitcom1335625howinformationsystemchangingthemanagementprocessdupdet copyvios and remedy this by editing this article to remove any nonfree copyrighted content and attributing free content correctly or flagging the content for deletion please be sure that the supposed source of the copyright violation is not itself a wikipedia mirror april 2018 change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment this includes alterations to desktop computers the network servers and software the objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made it is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects one of managements many responsibilities is the management of risk change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented not every change needs to be managed some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management however relocating user file shares or upgrading the email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity the critical first steps in change management are a defining change and communicating that definition and b defining the scope of the change system change management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives from key business areas security networking systems administrators database administration application developers desktop support and the help desk the tasks of the change review board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application the responsibility of the change review board is to ensure the organizations documented change management procedures are followed the change management process is as follows request anyone can request a change the person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change when a request for change is received it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change approve management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model industry standards or best practices management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change plan planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change analyzing the complexity of the change allocation of resources and developing testing and documenting both implementation and backout plans need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made test every change must be tested in a safe test environment which closely reflects the actual production environment before the change is applied to the production environment the backout plan must also be tested schedule part of the change review boards responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities communicate once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated the communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change the communication also serves to make the help desk and users aware that a change is about to occur another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change implement at the appointed date and time the changes must be implemented part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan testing plan and a back out plan if the implementation of the change should fail or the post implementation testing fails or other drop dead criteria have been met the back out plan should be implemented document all changes must be documented the documentation includes the initial request for change its approval the priority assigned to it the implementation testing and back out plans the results of the change review board critique the datetime the change was implemented who implemented it and whether the change was implemented successfully failed or postponed postchange review the change review board should hold a postimplementation review of changes it is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes the review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered and look for areas for improvement change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment good change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are implemented this is accomplished through planning peer review documentation and communication isoiec 20000 the visible ops handbook implementing itil in 4 practical and auditable steps and information technology infrastructure library all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and effective change management program information security business continuity business continuity management bcm concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organizations critical business functions from interruption due to incidents or at least minimize the effects bcm is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with current threats to the continuation of business as usual the bcm should be included in an organizations risk analysis plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function it encompasses analysis of requirements eg identifying critical business functions dependencies and potential failure points potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the organization specification eg maximum tolerable outage periods recovery point objectives maximum acceptable periods of data loss architecture and design eg an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience eg engineering it systems and processes for high availability avoiding or preventing situations that might interrupt the business incident and emergency management eg evacuating premises calling the emergency services triagesituation assessment and invoking recovery plans recovery eg rebuilding and contingency management generic capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are available implementation eg configuring and scheduling backups data transfers etc duplicating and strengthening critical elements contracting with service and equipment suppliers testing eg business continuity exercises of various types costs and assurance levels management eg defining strategies setting objectives and goals planning and directing the work allocating funds people and other resources prioritization relative to other activities team building leadership control motivation and coordination with other business functions and activities eg it facilities human resources risk management information risk and security operations monitoring the situation checking and updating the arrangements when things change maturing the approach through continuous improvement learning and appropriate investment assurance eg testing against specified requirements measuring analyzing and reporting key parameters conducting additional tests reviews and audits for greater confidence that the arrangements will go to plan if invoked whereas bcm takes a broad approach to minimizing disasterrelated risks by reducing both the probability and the severity of incidents a disaster recovery plan drp focuses specifically on resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster a disaster recovery plan invoked soon after a disaster occurs lays out the steps necessary to recover critical information and communications technology ict infrastructure disaster recovery planning includes establishing a planning group performing risk assessment establishing priorities developing recovery strategies preparing inventories and documentation of the plan developing verification criteria and procedure and lastly implementing the plan laws and regulations privacy international 2007 privacy rankinggreen protections and safeguardsred endemic surveillance societies below is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in various parts of the world that have had or will have a significant effect on data processing and information security important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact on information security the uk data protection act 1998 makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals including the obtaining holding use or disclosure of such information the european union data protection directive eudpd requires that all eu members adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of data privacy for citizens throughout the eu the computer misuse act 1990 is an act of the uk parliament making computer crime eg hacking a criminal offense the act has become a model upon which several other countries including canada and the republic of ireland have drawn inspiration from when subsequently drafting their own information security laws the eus data retention directive annulled required internet service providers and phone companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six months and two years the family educational rights and privacy act ferpa 20 usc1232 g 34 cfr part 99 is a us federal law that protects the privacy of student education records the law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the us department of education generally schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student in order to release any information from a students education record the federal financial institutions examination councils ffiec security guidelines for auditors specifies requirements for online banking security the health insurance portability and accountability act hipaa of 1996 requires the adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers health insurance plans and employers additionally it requires health care providers insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data the grammleachbliley act of 1999 glba also known as the financial services modernization act of 1999 protects the privacy and security of private financial information that financial institutions collect hold and process section 404 of the sarbanesoxley act of 2002 sox requires publicly traded companies to assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they submit at the end of each fiscal year chief information officers are responsible for the security accuracy and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data the act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent auditors who must attest to and report on the validity of their assessments the payment card industry data security standard pci dss establishes comprehensive requirements for enhancing payment account data security it was developed by the founding payment brands of the pci security standards council including american express discover financial services jcb mastercard worldwide and visa international to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent data security measures on a global basis the pci dss is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management policies procedures network architecture software design and other critical protective measures state security breach notification laws california and many others require businesses nonprofits and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted personal information may have been compromised lost or stolen the personal information protection and electronics document act pipeda of canada supports and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected used or disclosed in certain circumstances by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the canada evidence act the statutory instruments act and the statute revision act greeces hellenic authority for communication security and privacy adae law 1652011 establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should be deployed by every company which provides electronic communication networks andor services in greece in order to protect customers confidentiality these include both managerial and technical controls eg log records should be stored for two years greeces hellenic authority for communication security and privacy adae law 2052013 concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services and data offered by greek telecommunication companies the law forces these and other related companies to build deploy and test appropriate business continuity plans and redundant infrastructures information security culture employee behavior can have a big impact on information security in organizations cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization exploring the relationship between organizational culture and information security culture provides the following definition of information security culture isc is the totality of patterns of behavior in an organization that contribute to the protection of information of all kinds andersson and reimers 2014 found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the organization information security effort and often take actions that ignore organizational information security best interests preevaluation to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analysis current security policy strategic planning to come up a better awarenessprogram we need to set clear targets clustering people is helpful to achieve it operative planning create a good security culture based on internal communication management buyin security awareness and training programs implementation should feature commitment of management communication with organizational members courses for all organizational members and commitment of the employees postevaluation to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous improvement sources of standards cyber security standards the international organization for standardization iso is a consortium of national standards institutes from 157 countries coordinated through a secretariat in geneva switzerland iso is the worlds largest developer of standards iso 15443 information technology security techniques a framework for it security assurance isoiec 27002 information technology security techniques code of practice for information security management iso20000 information technology service management and isoiec 27001 information technology security techniques information security management systems requirements are of particular interest to information security professionals the us national institute of standards and technology nist is a nonregulatory federal agency within the us department of commerce the nist computer security division develops standards metrics tests and validation programs as well as publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure it planning implementation management and operation nist is also the custodian of the us federal information processing standard publications fips the internet society is a professional membership society with more than 100 organizations and over 20000 individual members in over 180 countries it provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the internet and is the organizational home for the groups responsible for internet infrastructure standards including the internet engineering task force ietf and the internet architecture board iab the isoc hosts the requests for comments rfcs which includes the official internet protocol standards and the rfc2196 site security handbook the information security forum is a global nonprofit organization of several hundred leading organizations in financial services manufacturing telecommunications consumer goods government and other areas it undertakes research into information security practices and offers advice in its biannual standard of good practice and more detailed advisories for members the institute of information security professionals iisp is an independent nonprofit body governed by its members with the principal objective of advancing the professionalism of information security practitioners and thereby the professionalism of the industry as a whole the institute developed the iisp skills framework this framework describes the range of competencies expected of information security and information assurance professionals in the effective performance of their roles it was developed through collaboration between both private and public sector organizations and worldrenowned academics and security leaders the german federal office for information security in german bundesamt fr sicherheit in der informationstechnik bsi bsistandards 1001 to 1004 are a set of recommendations including methods processes procedures approaches and measures relating to information security the bsistandard 1002 itgrundschutz methodology describes how information security management can be implemented and operated the standard includes a very specific guide the it baseline protection catalogs also known as itgrundschutz catalogs before 2005 the catalogs were formerly known as it baseline protection manual the catalogs are a collection of documents useful for detecting and combating securityrelevant weak points in the it environment it cluster the collection encompasses as of september 2013 over 4400 pages with the introduction and catalogs the itgrundschutz approach is aligned with to the isoiec 2700x family the european telecommunications standards institute standardized a catalog of information security indicators headed by the industrial specification group isg isi computer security portal backup data breach datacentric security enterprise information security architecture identitybased security information infrastructure information security audit information security indicators information security management information security standards information technology security audit it risk itil security management kill chain list of computer security certifications mobile security network security services privacy engineering privacy software privacyenhancing technologies security bug security information management security level management security of information act security service telecommunication single signon verification and validation anderson k it security professionals must evolve for changing market sc magazine october 12 2006 aceituno v on information security paradigms issa journal september 2005 dhillon g principles of information systems security text and cases john wiley sons 2007 easttom c computer security fundamentals 2nd edition pearson education 2011 lambo t isoiec 27001 the future of infosec certification issa journal november 2006 dustin d awareness of how your data is being used and what to do about it cdr blog may 2017 bibliography allen julia h 2001 the cert guide to system and network security practices boston ma addisonwesley isbn020173723x krutz ronald l russell dean vines 2003 the cissp prep guide gold ed indianapolis in wiley isbn047126802x layton timothy p 2007 information security design implementation measurement and compliance boca raton fl auerbach publications isbn9780849370878 mcnab chris 2004 network security assessment sebastopol ca oreilly isbn059600611x peltier thomas r 2001 information security risk analysis boca raton fl auerbach publications isbn0849308801 peltier thomas r 2002 information security policies procedures and standards guidelines for effective information security management boca raton fl auerbach publications isbn0849311373 white gregory 2003 allinone security certification exam guide emeryville ca mcgrawhillosborne isbn0072226331 dhillon gurpreet 2007 principles of information systems security text and cases ny john wiley sons isbn9780471450566 wikimedia commons has media related to information security dod ia policy chart on the dod information assurance technology analysis center web site patterns practices security engineering explained open security architecture controls and patterns to secure it systems iws information security chapter ross andersons book security engineering vtemajor fields of computer sciencenote this template roughly follows the 2012 acm computing classification systemhardware printed circuit board peripheral integrated circuit very large scale integration systems on chip socs energy consumption green computing electronic design automation hardware acceleration computer systemsorganization computer architecture embedded system realtime computing dependability networks network architecture network protocol network components network scheduler network performance evaluation network service software organization interpreter middleware virtual machine operating system software quality software notationsand tools programming paradigm programming language compiler domainspecific language modeling language software framework integrated development environment software configuration management software library software repository software development software development process requirements analysis software design software construction software deployment software maintenance programming team opensource model theory of computation model of computation formal language automata theory computational complexity theory logic semantics algorithms algorithm design analysis of algorithms algorithmic efficiency randomized algorithm computational geometry mathematicsof computing discrete mathematics probability statistics mathematical software information theory mathematical analysis numerical analysis informationsystems database management system information storage systems enterprise information system social information systems geographic information system decision support system process control system multimedia information system data mining digital library computing platform digital marketing world wide web information retrieval security cryptography formal methods security services intrusion detection system hardware security network security information security application security humancomputerinteraction interaction design social computing ubiquitous computing visualization accessibility concurrency concurrent computing parallel computing distributed computing multithreading multiprocessing artificialintelligence natural language processing knowledge representation and reasoning computer vision automated planning and scheduling search methodology control method philosophy of artificial 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