human factors and ergonomics human factors and ergonomics redirect here for the journal see human factors journal play media practical demonstrations of ergonomic principles human factors and ergonomics commonly referred to as human factors is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of products processes and systems the goal of human factors is to reduce human error increase productivity and enhance safety and comfort with a specific focus on the interaction between the human and the thing of interest the field is a combination of numerous disciplines such as psychology sociology engineering biomechanics industrial design physiology anthropometry interaction design visual design user experience and user interface design in research human factors employs the scientific method to study human behavior so that the resultant data may be applied to the four primary goals in essence it is the study of designing equipment devices and processes that fit the human body and its cognitive abilities the two terms human factors and ergonomics are essentially synonymous the international ergonomics association defines ergonomics or human factors as follows ergonomics or human factors is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system and the profession that applies theory principles data and methods to design to optimize human wellbeing and overall system performance part of a series onpsychology outline history subfields basic types abnormal behavioral genetics biological cognitivecognitivism comparative crosscultural cultural differential developmental evolutionary experimental mathematical neuropsychology personality big five positive quantitative social applied psychology applied behavior analysis clinical community consumer counseling critical educational environmental ergonomics forensic health humanistic industrial and organizational legal medical military music occupational health political religion school sport traffic lists disciplines organizations psychologists psychotherapies publications research methods theories timeline topics psychology portalvte human factors is employed to fulfill the goals of occupational health and safety and productivity it is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easytouse interfaces to machines and equipment proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders which can develop over time and can lead to longterm disability human factors and ergonomics is concerned with the fit between the user equipment and environment it accounts for the users capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks functions information and the environment suit that user to assess the fit between a person and the used technology human factors specialists or ergonomists consider the job activity being done and the demands on the user the equipment used its size shape and how appropriate it is for the task and the information used how it is presented accessed and changed ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their environments including anthropometry biomechanics mechanical engineering industrial engineering industrial design information design kinesiology physiology cognitive psychology industrial and organizational psychology and space psychology etymology the term ergonomics from the greek meaning work and meaning natural law first entered the modern lexicon when polish scientist wojciech jastrzbowski used the word in his 1857 article rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy opartej na prawdach poczerpnitych z nauki przyrody the outline of ergonomics ie science of work based on the truths taken from the natural science the expression human factors is a predominantly north american domains of specialization ergonomics comprise three main fields of research physical cognitive and organisational ergonomics there are many specializations within these broad categories specialisations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual ergonomics specialisations within the field of cognitive ergonomics may include usability humancomputer interaction and user experience engineering some specialisations may cut across these domains environmental ergonomics is concerned with human interaction with the environment as characterized by climate temperature pressure vibration light new terms are being generated all the time for instance user trial engineer may refer to a human factors professional who specialises in user trials although the names change human factors professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment systems and working methods to improve comfort health safety and productivity according to the international ergonomics association within the discipline of ergonomics there exist domains of specialization physical ergonomics physical ergonomics the science of designing user interaction with equipment and workplaces to fit the user physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomy and some of the anthropometric physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity one of the most prevalent types of workrelated injuries is musculoskeletal disorder workrelated musculoskeletal disorders wrmds result in persistent pain loss of functional capacity and work disability but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they are mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms cognitive ergonomics cognitive ergonomics cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes such as perception memory reasoning and motor response as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system relevant topics include mental workload decisionmaking skilled performance human reliability work stress and training as these may relate to humansystem and humancomputer interaction design organizational ergonomics organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of sociotechnical systems including their organizational structures policies and processes relevant topics include communication crew resource management work design work systems design of working times teamwork participatory design community ergonomics cooperative work new work programs virtual organizations telework and quality management history of the field in ancient societies the foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid within the context of the culture of ancient greece a good deal of evidence indicates that greek civilization in the 5th century bc used ergonomic principles in the design of their tools jobs and workplaces one outstanding example of this can be found in the description hippocrates gave of how a surgeons workplace should be designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged the archaeological record also shows that the early egyptian dynasties made tools and household equipment that illustrated ergonomic principles in industrial societies in the 19th century frederick winslow taylor pioneered the scientific management method which proposed a way to find the optimum method of carrying out a given task taylor found that he could for example triple the amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels until the fastest shoveling rate was reached however this approach was rejected by russian researchers who focused on the well being of the worker at the first conference on scientific organization of labour 1921 vladimir bekhterev and vladimir nikolayevich myasishchev criticised taylorism bekhterev argued that the ultimate ideal of the labour problem is not in it in aviation prior to world wari the focus of aviation psychology was on the aviator himself but the war shifted the focus onto the aircraft in particular the design of controls and displays and the effects of altitude and environmental factors on the pilot the war saw the emergence of aeromedical research and the need for testing and measurement methods studies on driver behaviour started gaining momentum during this period as henry ford started providing millions of americans with automobiles another major development during this period was the performance of aeromedical research by the end of world wari two aeronautical labs were established one at brooks air force base texas and the other at wrightpatterson air force base outside of dayton ohio many tests were conducted to determine which characteristic differentiated the successful pilots from the unsuccessful ones during the early 1930s edwin link developed the first flight simulator the trend continued and more sophisticated simulators and test equipment were developed another significant development was in the civilian sector where the effects of illumination on worker productivity were examined this led to the identification of the hawthorne effect which suggested that motivational factors could significantly influence human performance world warii marked the development of new and complex machines and weaponry and these made new demands on operators cognition it was no longer possible to adopt the tayloristic principle of matching individuals to preexisting jobs now the design of equipment had to take into account human limitations and take advantage of human capabilities the decisionmaking attention situational awareness and handeye coordination of the machines operator became key in the success or failure of a task there was substantial research conducted to determine the human capabilities and limitations that had to be accomplished a lot of this research took off where the aeromedical research between the wars had left off an example of this is the study done by fitts and jones 1947 who studied the most effective configuration of control knobs to be used in aircraft cockpits much of this research transcended into other equipment with the aim of making the controls and displays easier for the operators to use the entry of the terms human factors and ergonomics into the modern lexicon date from this period it was observed that fully functional aircraft flown by the besttrained pilots still crashed in 1943 alphonse chapanis a lieutenant in the us army showed that this socalled pilot error could be greatly reduced when more logical and differentiable controls replaced confusing designs in airplane cockpits after the war the army air force published 19 volumes summarizing what had been established from research during the war in the decades since world warii human factors has continued to flourish and diversify work by elias porter and others within the rand corporation after wwii extended the conception of human factors as the thinking progressed a new concept developedthat it was possible to view an organization such as an airdefense manmachine system as a single organism and that it was possible to study the behavior of such an organism it was the climate for a breakthrough during the cold war the beginning of the cold war led to a major expansion of defense supported research laboratories also many labs established during wwii started expanding most of the research following the war was militarysponsored large sums of money were granted to universities to conduct research the scope of the research also broadened from small equipments to entire workstations and systems concurrently a lot of opportunities started opening up in the civilian industry the focus shifted from research to participation through advice to engineers in the design of equipment after 1965 the period saw a maturation of the discipline the field has expanded with the development of the computer and computer applications the space age created new human factors issues such as weightlessness and extreme gforces tolerance of the harsh environment of space and its effects on the mind and body were widely studied information age the dawn of the information age has resulted in the related field of humancomputer interaction hci likewise the growing demand for and competition among consumer goods and electronics has resulted in more companies and industries including human factors in their product design using advanced technologies in human kinetics bodymapping movement patterns and heat zones companies are able to manufacture purposespecific garments including full body suits jerseys shorts shoes and even underwear presentday ergonomic evaluation in virtual environment in physical ergonomics digital tools and advanced software allow analysis of a workplace an employees movements are recorded using a motion capture tool and imported into an analyzing system to detect hazardous postures and movements traditional risk assessment methods are implemented in the software for example as in the vivelab ergonomic assessment software rula and nasaobi in virtual space a biomechanically accurate model represents the worker the body structure sex age and demographic group of the mannequin is adjustable to correspond to the properties of the employee the software provides several different evaluations such as reachability test spaghetti diagram or visibility analysis with these tools ergonomists are able to redesign a workstation in a virtual environment and test it in iterations until the result is satisfactory human factors organizations formed in 1946 in the uk the oldest professional body for human factors specialists and ergonomists is the chartered institute of ergonomics and human factors formally known as the institute of ergonomics and human factors and before that the ergonomics society the human factors and ergonomics society hfes was founded in 1957 the societys mission is to promote the discovery and exchange of knowledge concerning the characteristics of human beings that are applicable to the design of systems and devices of all kinds the association of canadian ergonomists lassociation canadienne dergonomie ace was founded in 1968 the international ergonomics association iea is a federation of ergonomics and human factors societies from around the world the mission of the iea is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice and to improve the quality of life by expanding its scope of application and contribution to society as of september 2008 the international ergonomics association has 46 federated societies and 2 affiliated societies related organizations the institute of occupational medicine iom was founded by the coal industry in 1969 from the outset the iom employed an ergonomics staff to apply ergonomics principles to the design of mining machinery and environments to this day the iom continues ergonomics activities especially in the fields of musculoskeletal disorders heat stress and the ergonomics of personal protective equipment ppe like many in occupational ergonomics the demands and requirements of an ageing uk workforce are a growing concern and interest to iom ergonomists the international society of automotive engineers sae is a professional organization for mobility engineering professionals in the aerospace automotive and commercial vehicle industries the society is a standards development organization for the engineering of powered vehicles of all kinds including cars trucks boats aircraft and others the society of automotive engineers has established a number of standards used in the automotive industry and elsewhere it encourages the design of vehicles in accordance with established human factors principles it is one of the most influential organizations with respect to ergonomics work in automotive design this society regularly holds conferences which address topics spanning all aspects of human factors and ergonomics practitioners human factors practitioners come from a variety of backgrounds though predominantly they are psychologists from the various subfields of industrial and organizational psychology engineering psychology cognitive psychology perceptual psychology applied psychology and experimental psychology and physiologists designers industrial interaction and graphic anthropologists technical communication scholars and computer scientists also contribute typically an ergonomist will have an undergraduate degree in psychology engineering design or health sciences and usually a masters degree or doctoral degree in a related discipline though some practitioners enter the field of human factors from other disciplines both ms and phd degrees in human factors engineering are available from several universities worldwide methods until recently methods used to evaluate human factors and ergonomics ranged from simple questionnaires to more complex and expensive usability labs some of the more common human factors methods are listed below ethnographic analysis using methods derived from ethnography this process focuses on observing the uses of technology in a practical environment it is a qualitative and observational method that focuses on realworld experience and pressures and the usage of technology or environments in the workplace the process is best used early in the design process focus groups are another form of qualitative research in which one individual will facilitate discussion and elicit opinions about the technology or process under investigation this can be on a onetoone interview basis or in a group session can be used to gain a large quantity of deep qualitative data can be used at any point in the design process as it is largely dependent on the exact questions to be pursued and the structure of the group can be extremely costly iterative design also known as prototyping the iterative design process seeks to involve users at several stages of design to correct problems as they emerge as prototypes emerge from the design process these are subjected to other forms of analysis as outlined in this article and the results are then taken and incorporated into the new design trends among users are analyzed and products redesigned this can become a costly process and needs to be done as soon as possible in the design process before designs become too concrete metaanalysis a supplementary technique used to examine a wide body of already existing data or literature to derive trends or form hypotheses to aid design decisions as part of a literature survey a metaanalysis can be performed to discern a collective trend from individual variables subjectsintandem two subjects are asked to work concurrently on a series of tasks while vocalizing their analytical observations the technique is also known as codiscovery as participants tend to feed off of each others comments to generate a richer set of observations than is often possible with the participants separately this is observed by the researcher and can be used to discover usability difficulties this process is usually recorded surveys and questionnaires a commonly used technique outside of human factors as well surveys and questionnaires have an advantage in that they can be administered to a large group of people for relatively low cost enabling the researcher to gain a large amount of data the validity of the data obtained is however always in question as the questions must be written and interpreted correctly and are by definition subjective those who actually respond are in effect selfselecting as well widening the gap between the sample and the population further task analysis a process with roots in activity theory task analysis is a way of systematically describing human interaction with a system or process to understand how to match the demands of the system or process to human capabilities the complexity of this process is generally proportional to the complexity of the task being analyzed and so can vary in cost and time involvement it is a qualitative and observational process best used early in the design process think aloud protocol also known as concurrent verbal protocol this is the process of asking a user to execute a series of tasks or use technology while continuously verbalizing their thoughts so that a researcher can gain insights as to the users analytical process can be useful for finding design flaws that do not affect task performance but may have a negative cognitive effect on the user also useful for utilizing experts to better understand procedural knowledge of the task in question less expensive than focus groups but tends to be more specific and subjective user analysis this process is based around designing for the attributes of the intended user or operator establishing the characteristics that define them creating a persona for the user best done at the outset of the design process a user analysis will attempt to predict the most common users and the characteristics that they would be assumed to have in common this can be problematic if the design concept does not match the actual user or if the identified are too vague to make clear design decisions from this process is however usually quite inexpensive and commonly used wizard of oz this is a comparatively uncommon technique but has seen some use in mobile devices based upon the wizard of oz experiment this technique involves an operator who remotely controls the operation of a device to imitate the response of an actual computer program it has the advantage of producing a highly changeable set of reactions but can be quite costly and difficult to undertake methods analysis is the process of studying the tasks a worker completes using a stepbystep investigation each task in broken down into smaller steps until each motion the worker performs is described doing so enables you to see exactly where repetitive or straining tasks occur time studies determine the time required for a worker to complete each task time studies are often used to analyze cyclical jobs they are considered event based studies because time measurements are triggered by the occurrence of predetermined events work sampling is a method in which the job is sampled at random intervals to determine the proportion of total time spent on a particular task it provides insight into how often workers are performing tasks which might cause strain on their bodies predetermined time systems are methods for analyzing the time spent by workers on a particular task one of the most widely used predetermined time system is called methodstimemeasurement mtm other common work measurement systems include modapts and most industry specific applications based on pts are seweasymodapts and gsd as seen in paper miller doug towards sustainable labour costing in uk fashion retail 5 february 2013 available at ssrn httpssrncomabstract2212100 or doi102139ssrn2212100 cognitive walkthrough this method is a usability inspection method in which the evaluators can apply user perspective to task scenarios to identify design problems as applied to macroergonomics evaluators are able to analyze the usability of work system designs to identify how well a work system is organized and how well the workflow is integrated kansei method this is a method that transforms consumers responses to new products into design specifications as applied to macroergonomics this method can translate employees responses to changes to a work system into design specifications high integration of technology organization and people hitop this is a manual procedure done stepbystep to apply technological change to the workplace it allows managers to be more aware of the human and organizational aspects of their technology plans allowing them to efficiently integrate technology in these contexts top modeler this model helps manufacturing companies identify the organizational changes needed when new technologies are being considered for their process computerintegrated manufacturing organization and people system design cimop this model allows for evaluating computerintegrated manufacturing organization and people system design based on knowledge of the system anthropotechnology this method considers analysis and design modification of systems for the efficient transfer of technology from one culture to another systems analysis tool sat this is a method to conduct systematic tradeoff evaluations of worksystem intervention alternatives macroergonomic analysis of structure mas this method analyzes the structure of work systems according to their compatibility with unique sociotechnical aspects macroergonomic analysis and design mead this method assesses worksystem processes by using a tenstep process virtual manufacturing and response surface methodology vmrsm this method uses computerized tools and statistical analysis for workstation design weaknesses problems related to measures of usability include the fact that measures of learning and retention of how to use an interface are rarely employed and some studies treat measures of how users interact with interfaces as synonymous with qualityinuse despite an unclear relation although field methods can be extremely useful because they are conducted in the users natural environment they have some major limitations to consider the limitations include usually take more time and resources than other methods very high effort in planning recruiting and executing compared with other methods much longer study periods and therefore requires much goodwill among the participants studies are longitudinal in nature therefore attrition can become a problem further information outline of ergonomics design portal related subjects 3d body scanning accessibility anthropometrics back injury carpal tunnel syndrome cognitive ergonomics cognitive load computeraided ergonomics ergonomics in canada humancomputer interaction human error human factors in engineering and design humanintheloop human reliability industrial noise latent human error manual handling mockup musculoskeletal disorder needs analysis occupational health science repetitive strain injury rohmerts law procrustes the antonym of ergonomics spinal disc herniation system usability scale related fields activitycentered ergonomics accident analysis crew resource management design for all engineering psychology environmental design experience design humancomputer interaction humancentered computing discipline human factors integration industrial and organizational psychology industrial design industrial engineering industrial hygiene light ergonomics maintenance resource management occupational health psychology occupational therapy participatory ergonomics safety engineering single pilot resource management systems engineering systems psychology ubiquitous computing universal design usability user experience design usercentered design related scientists living m m ayoub john chris jones donald norman richard pew thomas sheridan neville a stanton related scientists deceased frederic bartlett alphonse chapanis niels diffrient henry dreyfuss paul fitts frank gilbreth lillian gilbreth tienne grandjean w e hick john karlin maurice de montmollin frederick w taylor books thomas j armstrong 2008 chapter 10 allowances localized fatigue musculoskeletal disorders and biomechanics not yet published berlin c adams c 2017 production ergonomics designing work systems to support optimal human performance london ubiquity press doi httpsdoiorg105334bbe jan dul and bernard weedmaster ergonomics for beginners a classic introduction on ergonomics original title vademecum ergonomie dutchpublished and updated since the 1960s valerie j gawron 2000 human performance measures handbook lawrence erlbaum associates a useful summary of human performance measures lee jd wickens cd liu y boyle ln 2017 designing for people an introduction to human factors engineering 3nd edition charleston sc createspace isbn9781539808008 liu y 2007 ioe 333 course pack industrial and operations engineering 333 introduction to ergonomics university of michigan ann arbor mi winter 2007 meister d 1999 the history of human factors and ergonomics mahwah nj lawrence erlbaum associates isbn9780805827699 donald norman the design of everyday thingsan entertaining usercentered critique of nearly every gadget out there at the time it was published peter opsvik 2009 rethinking sitting interesting insights on the history of the chair and how we sit from an ergonomic pioneer oviatt s l cohen p r march 2000 multimodal systems that process what comes naturally communications of the acm 43 3 4553 doi101145330534330538 computer ergonomics work related upper limb disorder prevention making the business case for proactive ergonomics rooney et al 2008 stephen pheasant bodyspacea classic exploration of ergonomics sarter n b cohen p r 2002 multimodal information presentation in support of humanautomation communication and coordination advances in human performance and cognitive engineering research 2 pp1336 doi101016s1479360102020040 isbn9780762307487 smith thomas j et al 2015 variability in human performance crc press isbn9781466579729 alvin r tilley henry dreyfuss associates 1993 2002 the measure of man woman human factors in design a human factors design manual kim vicente the human factor full of examples and statistics illustrating the gap between existing technology and the human mind with suggestions to narrow it wickens cd lee jd liu y gorden becker se 2003 an introduction to human factors engineering 2nd edition prentice hall isbn9780321012296 wickens c d sandy d l vidulich m 1983 compatibility and resource competition between modalities of input central processing and output human factors 25 2 227248 doi101177001872088302500209 issn00187208 pmid6862451wu s 2011 warranty claims analysis considering human factors pdf reliability engineering system safety 96 131138 doi101016jress201007010 wickens and hollands 2000 engineering psychology and human performance discusses memory attention decision making stress and human error among other topics wilson corlett evaluation of human work a practical ergonomics methodology warning very technical and not a suitable intro to ergonomics zamprotta luigi la qualit comme philosophie de la productioninteraction avec lergonomie et perspectives futures thse de matrise s sciences appliques informatique institut detudes suprieures lavenir bruxelles anne universitaire 199293 tiu press independence missouri usa 1994 isbn0896974529 peerreviewed journals numbers between brackets are the isi impact factor followed by the date behaviour information technology 0915 2008 ergonomics j0747 20012003 ergonomics in design applied ergonomics 1713 2015 human factors 137 2015 international journal of industrial ergonomics 0395 20012003 human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing 0311 20012003 travail humain 0260 20012003 theoretical issues in ergonomics science international journal of human factors and ergonomics international journal of 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