stereoscopy stereographic redirects here for the map projection see stereographic projection pocket stereoscope with original test image used by military to examine stereoscopic pairs of aerial photographs view of boston c 1860 an early stereoscopic card for viewing a scene from nature kaiserpanorama consisted of a multistation viewing apparatus and sets of stereo slides patented by a fuhrmann around 1890 a company of ladies looking at stereoscopic views painting by jacob spoel before 1868 an early depiction of people using a stereoscope stereoscopy also called stereoscopics or stereo imaging is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram originally stereogram referred to a pair of stereo images which could be viewed using a stereoscope most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left and right eye of the viewer these twodimensional images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of 3d depth this technique is distinguished from 3d displays that display an image in three full dimensions allowing the observer to increase information about the 3dimensional objects being displayed by head and eye movements background stereoscopy creates the illusion of threedimensional depth from given twodimensional images stereopsis accommodation of the eye overlapping of one object by another subtended visual angle of an object of known size linear perspective convergence of parallel edges vertical position objects closer to the horizon in the scene tend to be perceived as farther away haze or contrast saturation and color greater distance generally being associated with greater haze desaturation and a shift toward blue change in size of textured pattern detail all but the first two of the above cues exist in traditional twodimensional images such as paintings photographs and television stereoscopy is the production of the illusion of depth in a photograph movie or other twodimensional image by the presentation of a slightly different image to each eye which adds the first of these cues stereopsis the two images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of depth because all points in the image produced by stereoscopy focus at the same plane regardless of their depth in the original scene the second cue focus is not duplicated and therefore the illusion of depth is incomplete there are also mainly two effects of stereoscopy that are unnatural for human vision 1 the mismatch between convergence and accommodation caused by the difference between an objects perceived position in front of or behind the display or screen and the real origin of that light and 2 possible crosstalk between the eyes caused by imperfect image separation in some methods of stereoscopy although the term 3d is ubiquitously used the presentation of dual 2d images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions the most notable difference is that in the case of 3d displays the observers head and eye movement do not change the information received about the 3dimensional objects being viewed holographic displays and volumetric display do not have this limitation just as it is not possible to recreate a full 3dimensional sound field with just two stereophonic speakers it is an overstatement to call dual 2d images 3d the accurate term stereoscopic is more cumbersome than the common misnomer 3d which has been entrenched by many decades of unquestioned misuse although most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3d display all real 3d displays are also stereoscopic displays because they meet the lower criteria also most 3d displays use this stereoscopic method to convey images it was first invented by sir charles wheatstone in 1838 and improved by sir david brewster who made the first portable 3d viewing device wheatstone mirror stereoscope brewstertype stereoscope 1870 wheatstone originally used his stereoscope a rather bulky device for the purposes of illustration i have employed only outline figures for had either shading or colouring been introduced it might be supposed that the effect was wholly or in part due to these circumstances whereas by leaving them out of consideration no room is left to doubt that the entire effect of relief is owing to the simultaneous perception of the two monocular projections one on each retina but if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of real objects shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects careful attention would enable an artist to draw and paint the two component pictures so as to present to the mind of the observer in the resultant perception perfect identity with the object represented flowers crystals busts vases instruments of various kinds c might thus be represented so as not to be distinguished by sight from the real objects themselves stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of stereograms stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large multidimensional data sets such as are produced by experimental data modern industrial threedimensional photography may use 3d scanners to detect and record threedimensional information solving the correspondence problem in the field of computer vision aims to create meaningful depth information from two images visual requirements anatomically there are 3 levels of binocular vision required to view stereo images simultaneous perception fusion binocular single vision stereopsis these functions develop in early childhood some people who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereopsis however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve binocular vision a persons stereoacuity stereoscopic viewing may be artificially created by the viewers brain as demonstrated with the van hare effect where the brain perceives stereo images even when the paired photographs are identical this false dimensionality results from the developed stereoacuity in the brain allowing the viewer to fill in depth information even when few if any 3d cues are actually available in the paired images sidebyside the early bird catches the worm stereograph published in 1900 by northwestern view co of baraboo wisconsin digitally restored traditional stereoscopic photography consists of creating a 3d illusion starting from a pair of 2d images a stereogram the easiest way to enhance depth perception in the brain is to provide the eyes of the viewer with two different images representing two perspectives of the same object with a minor deviation equal or nearly equal to the perspectives that both eyes naturally receive in binocular vision a stereoscopic pair of images combined after coloring one red and the other cyan it can be viewed in 3d by using simple anaglyph 3d glasses to avoid eyestrain and distortion each of the two 2d images should be presented to the viewer so that any object at infinite distance is perceived by the eye as being straight ahead the viewers eyes being neither crossed nor diverging when the picture contains no object at infinite distance such as a horizon or a cloud the pictures should be spaced correspondingly closer together the advantages of sidebyside viewers is the lack of diminution of brightness allowing the presentation of images at very high resolution and in full spectrum color simplicity in creation and little or no additional image processing is required under some circumstances such as when a pair of images are presented for freeviewing no device or additional optical equipment is needed the principal disadvantage of sidebyside viewers is that large image displays are not practical and resolution is limited by the lesser of the display medium or human eye this is because as the dimensions of an image are increased either the viewing apparatus or viewer themselves must move proportionately further away from it in order to view it comfortably moving closer to an image in order to see more detail would only be possible with viewing equipment that adjusted to the difference printable cross eye viewer freeviewing freeviewing is viewing a sidebyside image pair without using a viewing device two methods are available to freeview the parallel viewing method uses an image pair with the lefteye image on the left and the righteye image on the right the fused threedimensional image appears larger and more distant than the two actual images making it possible to convincingly simulate a lifesize scene the viewer attempts to look through the images with the eyes substantially parallel as if looking at the actual scene this can be difficult with normal vision because eye focus and binocular convergence are habitually coordinated one approach to decoupling the two functions is to view the image pair extremely close up with completely relaxed eyes making no attempt to focus clearly but simply achieving comfortable stereoscopic fusion of the two blurry images by the lookthrough approach and only then exerting the effort to focus them more clearly increasing the viewing distance as necessary regardless of the approach used or the image medium for comfortable viewing and stereoscopic accuracy the size and spacing of the images should be such that the corresponding points of very distant objects in the scene are separated by the same distance as the viewers eyes but not more the average interocular distance is about 63mm viewing much more widely separated images is possible but because the eyes never diverge in normal use it usually requires some previous training and tends to cause eye strain the crosseyed viewing method swaps the left and right eye images so that they will be correctly seen crosseyed the left eye viewing the image on the right and vice versa the fused threedimensional image appears to be smaller and closer than the actual images so that large objects and scenes appear miniaturized this method is usually easier for freeviewing novices as an aid to fusion a fingertip can be placed just below the division between the two images then slowly brought straight toward the viewers eyes keeping the eyes directed at the fingertip at a certain distance a fused threedimensional image should seem to be hovering just above the finger alternatively a piece of paper with a small opening cut into it can be used in a similar manner when correctly positioned between the image pair and the viewers eyes it will seem to frame a small threedimensional image prismatic selfmasking glasses are now being used by some crosseyedview advocates these reduce the degree of convergence required and allow large images to be displayed however any viewing aid that uses prisms mirrors or lenses to assist fusion or focus is simply a type of stereoscope excluded by the customary definition of freeviewing stereoscopically fusing two separate images without the aid of mirrors or prisms while simultaneously keeping them in sharp focus without the aid of suitable viewing lenses inevitably requires an unnatural combination of eye vergence and accommodation simple freeviewing therefore cannot accurately reproduce the physiological depth cues of the realworld viewing experience different individuals may experience differing degrees of ease and comfort in achieving fusion and good focus as well as differing tendencies to eye fatigue or strain wikimedia commons has media related to parallelview stereo images wikimedia commons has media related to crosseyeview stereo images autostereogram autostereogram and random dot stereogram an autostereogram is a singleimage stereogram sis designed to create the visual illusion of a threedimensional 3d scene within the human brain from an external twodimensional image in order to perceive 3d shapes in these autostereograms one must overcome the normally automatic coordination between focusing and vergence stereoscope and stereographic cards stereoscope the stereoscope is essentially an instrument in which two photographs of the same object taken from slightly different angles are simultaneously presented one to each eye a simple stereoscope is limited in the size of the image that may be used a more complex stereoscope uses a pair of horizontal periscopelike devices allowing the use of larger images that can present more detailed information in a wider field of view transparency viewers slide viewer stereo slide viewer a viewmaster model e of the 1950s some stereoscopes are designed for viewing transparent photographs on film or glass known as transparencies or diapositives and commonly called slides some of the earliest stereoscope views issued in the 1850s were on glass in the early 20th century 45x107mm and 6x13cm glass slides were common formats for amateur stereo photography especially in europe in later years several filmbased formats were in use the bestknown formats for commercially issued stereo views on film are truvue introduced in 1931 and viewmaster introduced in 1939 and still in production for amateur stereo slides the stereo realist format introduced in 1947 is by far the most common headmounted displays headmounted display an hmd with a separate video source displayed in front of each eye to achieve a stereoscopic effect the user typically wears a helmet or glasses with two small lcd or oled displays with magnifying lenses one for each eye the technology can be used to show stereo films images or games but it can also be used to create a virtual display headmounted displays may also be coupled with headtracking devices allowing the user to look around the virtual world by moving their head eliminating the need for a separate controller performing this update quickly enough to avoid inducing nausea in the user requires a great amount of computer image processing if six axis position sensing direction and position is used then wearer may move about within the limitations of the equipment used owing to rapid advancements in computer graphics and the continuing miniaturization of video and other equipment these devices are beginning to become available at more reasonable cost headmounted or wearable glasses may be used to view a seethrough image imposed upon the real world view creating what is called augmented reality this is done by reflecting the video images through partially reflective mirrors the real world view is seen through the mirrors reflective surface experimental systems have been used for gaming where virtual opponents may peek from real windows as a player moves about this type of system is expected to have wide application in the maintenance of complex systems as it can give a technician what is effectively xray vision by combining computer graphics rendering of hidden elements with the technicians natural vision additionally technical data and schematic diagrams may be delivered to this same equipment eliminating the need to obtain and carry bulky paper documents augmented stereoscopic vision is also expected to have applications in surgery as it allows the combination of radiographic data cat scans and mri imaging with the surgeons vision virtual retinal displays virtual retinal display a virtual retinal display vrd also known as a retinal scan display rsd or retinal projector rp not to be confused with a retina display is a display technology that draws a raster image like a television picture directly onto the retina of the eye the user sees what appears to be a conventional display floating in space in front of them for true stereoscopy each eye must be provided with its own discrete display to produce a virtual display that occupies a usefully large visual angle but does not involve the use of relatively large lenses or mirrors the light source must be very close to the eye a contact lens incorporating one or more semiconductor light sources is the form most commonly proposed as of 2013 the inclusion of suitable lightbeamscanning means in a contact lens is still very problematic as is the alternative of embedding a reasonably transparent array of hundreds of thousands or millions for hd resolution of accurately aligned sources of collimated light a pair of lc shutter glasses used to view xpand 3d films the thick frames conceal the electronics and batteries reald circular polarized glasses 3d viewers there are two categories of 3d viewer technology active and passive active viewers have electronics which interact with a display passive viewers filter constant streams of binocular input to the appropriate eye active shutter systems functional principle of active shutter 3d systems active shutter 3d system a shutter system works by openly presenting the image intended for the left eye while blocking the right eyes view then presenting the righteye image while blocking the left eye and repeating this so rapidly that the interruptions do not interfere with the perceived fusion of the two images into a single 3d image it generally uses liquid crystal shutter glasses each eyes glass contains a liquid crystal layer which has the property of becoming dark when voltage is applied being otherwise transparent the glasses are controlled by a timing signal that allows the glasses to alternately darken over one eye and then the other in synchronization with the refresh rate of the screen the main drawback of active shutters is that most 3d videos and movies were shot with simultaneous left and right views so that it introduces a time parallax for anything sidemoving for instance someone walking at 34mph will be seen 20 too close or 25 too remote in the most current case of a 2x60 hz projection passive polarization systems functional principle of polarized 3d systems polarized 3d system and vectograph to present stereoscopic pictures two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through polarizing filters or presented on a display with polarized filters for projection a silver screen is used so that polarization is preserved on most passive displays every other row of pixels is polarized for one eye or the other this method is also known as being interlaced the viewer wears lowcost eyeglasses which also contain a pair of opposite polarizing filters as each filter only passes light which is similarly polarized and blocks the opposite polarized light each eye only sees one of the images and the effect is achieved interference filter systems interference filter systems this technique uses specific wavelengths of red green and blue for the right eye and different wavelengths of red green and blue for the left eye eyeglasses which filter out the very specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a full color 3d image it is also known as spectral comb filtering or wavelength multiplex visualization or superanaglyph dolby 3d uses this principle the omega 3dpanavision 3d system has also used an improved version of this technology in june 2012 the omega 3dpanavision 3d system was discontinued by dpvo theatrical who marketed it on behalf of panavision citing challenging global economic and 3d market conditions anaglyph 3d glasses color anaglyph systems anaglyph 3d anaglyph 3d is the name given to the stereoscopic 3d effect achieved by means of encoding each eyes image using filters of different usually chromatically opposite colors typically red and cyan redcyan filters can be used because our vision processing systems use red and cyan comparisons as well as blue and yellow to determine the color and contours of objects anaglyph 3d images contain two differently filtered colored images one for each eye when viewed through the colorcoded anaglyph glasses each of the two images reaches one eye revealing an integrated stereoscopic image the visual cortex of the brain fuses this into perception of a three dimensional scene or composition chromadepth system chromadepth chromadepth glasses with prismlike film the chromadepth procedure of american paper optics is based on the fact that with a prism colors are separated by varying degrees the chromadepth eyeglasses contain special view foils which consist of microscopically small prisms this causes the image to be translated a certain amount that depends on its color if one uses a prism foil now with one eye but not on the other eye then the two seen pictures depending upon color are more or less widely separated the brain produces the spatial impression from this difference the advantage of this technology consists above all of the fact that one can regard chromadepth pictures also without eyeglasses thus twodimensional problemfree unlike with twocolor anaglyph however the colors are only limitedly selectable since they contain the depth information of the picture if one changes the color of an object then its observed distance will also be changed kmq stereo prismatic viewer with openkmq plastics extensions pulfrich method pulfrich effect the pulfrich effect is based on the phenomenon of the human eye processing images more slowly when there is less light as when looking through a dark lens because the pulfrich effect depends on motion in a particular direction to instigate the illusion of depth it is not useful as a general stereoscopic technique for example it cannot be used to show a stationary object apparently extending into or out of the screen similarly objects moving vertically will not be seen as moving in depth incidental movement of objects will create spurious artifacts and these incidental effects will be seen as artificial depth not related to actual depth in the scene overunder format stereoscopic viewing is achieved by placing an image pair one above one another special viewers are made for overunder format that tilt the right eyesight slightly up and the left eyesight slightly down the most common one with mirrors is the view magic another with prismatic glasses is the kmq viewer other display methods without viewers autostereoscopy autostereoscopy the nintendo 3ds uses parallax barrier autostereoscopy to display a 3d image autostereoscopic display technologies use optical components in the display rather than worn by the user to enable each eye to see a different image because headgear is not required it is also called glassesfree 3d the optics split the images directionally into the viewers eyes so the display viewing geometry requires limited head positions that will achieve the stereoscopic effect automultiscopic displays provide multiple views of the same scene rather than just two each view is visible from a different range of positions in front of the display this allows the viewer to move leftright in front of the display and see the correct view from any position the technology includes two broad classes of displays those that use headtracking to ensure that each of the viewers two eyes sees a different image on the screen and those that display multiple views so that the display does not need to know where the viewers eyes are directed examples of autostereoscopic displays technology include lenticular lens parallax barrier volumetric display holography and light field displays holography holography and computergenerated holography laser holography in its original pure form of the photographic transmission hologram is the only technology yet created which can reproduce an object or scene with such complete realism that the reproduction is visually indistinguishable from the original given the original lighting conditions it creates a light field identical to that which emanated from the original scene with parallax about all axes and a very wide viewing angle the eye differentially focuses objects at different distances and subject detail is preserved down to the microscopic level the effect is exactly like looking through a window unfortunately this pure form requires the subject to be laserlit and completely motionlessto within a minor fraction of the wavelength of lightduring the photographic exposure and laser light must be used to properly view the results most people have never seen a laserlit transmission hologram the types of holograms commonly encountered have seriously compromised image quality so that ordinary white light can be used for viewing and nonholographic intermediate imaging processes are almost always resorted to as an alternative to using powerful and hazardous pulsed lasers when living subjects are photographed although the original photographic processes have proven impractical for general use the combination of computergenerated holograms cgh and optoelectronic holographic displays both under development for many years has the potential to transform the halfcenturyold pipe dream of holographic 3d television into a reality so far however the large amount of calculation required to generate just one detailed hologram and the huge bandwidth required to transmit a stream of them have confined this technology to the research laboratory in 2013 a silicon valley company leia inc started manufacturing holographic displays well suited for mobile devices watches smartphones or tablets using a multidirectional backlight and allowing a wide fullparallax angle view to see 3d content without the need of glasses volumetric displays volumetric display and bubblegram volumetric displays use some physical mechanism to display points of light within a volume such displays use voxels instead of pixels volumetric displays include multiplanar displays which have multiple display planes stacked up and rotating panel displays where a rotating panel sweeps out a volume other technologies have been developed to project light dots in the air above a device an infrared laser is focused on the destination in space generating a small bubble of plasma which emits visible light integral imaging integral imaging integral imaging is a technique for producing 3d displays which are both autostereoscopic and multiscopic meaning that the 3d image is viewed without the use of special glasses and different aspects are seen when it is viewed from positions that differ either horizontally or vertically this is achieved by using an array of microlenses akin to a lenticular lens but an xy or flys eye array in which each lenslet typically forms its own image of the scene without assistance from a larger objective lens or pinholes to capture and display the scene as a 4d light field producing stereoscopic images that exhibit realistic alterations of parallax and perspective when the viewer moves left right up down closer or farther away wiggle stereoscopy wiggle stereoscopy and kinetic depth effect wiggle stereoscopy is an image display technique achieved by quickly alternating display of left and right sides of a stereogram found in animated gif format on the web online examples are visible in the newyork public library stereogram collection the technique is also known as pikupiku stereo photography techniques modern stereo tv camera stereo photography techniques for general purpose stereo photography where the goal is to duplicate natural human vision and give a visual impression as close as possible to actually being there the correct baseline distance between where the right and left images are taken would be the same as the distance between the eyes when images taken with such a baseline are viewed using a viewing method that duplicates the conditions under which the picture is taken then the result would be an image pretty much the same as what would be seen at the site the photo was taken this could be described as ortho stereo however there are situations in which it might be desirable to use a longer or shorter baseline the factors to consider include the viewing method to be used and the goal in taking the picture the concept of baseline also applies to other branches of stereography such as stereo drawings and computer generated stereo images but it involves the point of view chosen rather than actual physical separation of cameras or lenses stereo window the concept of the stereo window is always important since the window is the stereoscopic image of the external boundaries of left and right views constituting the stereoscopic image if any object which is cut off by lateral sides of the window is placed in front of it an effect results that is unnatural and is undesirable this is called a window violation this can best be understood by returning to the analogy of an actual physical window therefore there is a contradiction between two different depth cues some elements of the image are hidden by the window so that the window appears as closer than these elements and the same elements of the image appear as closer than the window so that the stereo window must always be adjusted to avoid window violations some objects can be seen in front of the window as far as they dont reach the lateral sides of the window but these objects can not be seen as too close since there is always a limit of the parallax range for comfortable viewing if a scene is viewed through a window the entire scene would normally be behind the window if the scene is distant it would be some distance behind the window if it is nearby it would appear to be just beyond the window an object smaller than the window itself could even go through the window and appear partially or completely in front of it the same applies to a part of a larger object that is smaller than the window the goal of setting the stereo window is to duplicate this effect therefore the location of the window versus the whole of the image must be adjusted so that most of the image is seen beyond the window in the case of viewing on a 3d tv set it is easier to place the window in front of the image and to let the window in the plane of the screen on the contrary in the case of projection on a much larger screen it is much better to set the window in front of the screen it is called floating window for instance so that it is viewed about two meters away by the viewers sit in the first row therefore these people will normally see tha background of the image at the infinite of course the viewers seated beyond will see the window more remote but if the image is made in normal conditions so that the first row viewers see this background at the infinite the other viewers seated behind will also see this background at the infinite since the parallax of this background is equal to the average human interocular the entire scene including the window can be moved backwards or forwards in depth by horizontally sliding the left and right eye views relative to each other moving either or both images away from the center will bring the whole scene away from the viewer whereas moving either or both images toward the center will move the whole scene toward the viewer this is possible for instance if two projectors are used for this projection in stereo photography window adjustments is accomplished by shiftingcropping the images in other forms of stereoscopy such as drawings and computer generated images the window is built into the design of the images as they are generated the images can be cropped creatively to create a stereo window that is not necessarily rectangular or lying on a flat plane perpendicular to the viewers line of sight the edges of the stereo frame can be straight or curved and when viewed in 3d can flow toward or away from the viewer and through the scene these designed stereo frames can help emphasize certain elements in the stereo image or can be an artistic component of the stereo image uses while stereoscopic images have typically been used for amusement including stereographic cards 3d films stereoscopic video games printings using anaglyph and pictures posters and books of autostereograms there are also other uses of this technology art salvador dal created some impressive stereograms in his exploration in a variety of optical illusions education in the 19th century it was realized that stereoscopic images provided an opportunity for people to experience places and things far away and many tour sets were produced and books were published allowing people to learn about geography science history and other subjects such uses continued till the mid 20th century with the keystone view company producing cards into the 1960s this image captured on june 8 2004 is an example of a composite anaglyph image generated from the stereo pancam on spirit one of the mars exploration rovers it can be viewed stereoscopically with proper redcyan filter glasses a single 2d version is also available courtesy nasajplcaltech 3d red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly space exploration the mars exploration rovers launched by nasa in 2003 to explore the surface of mars are equipped with unique cameras that allow researchers to view stereoscopic images of the surface of mars the two cameras that make up each rovers pancam are situated 15m above the ground surface and are separated by 30cm with 1 degree of toein this allows the image pairs to be made into scientifically useful stereoscopic images which can be viewed as stereograms anaglyphs or processed into 3d computer images the ability to create realistic 3d images from a pair of cameras at roughly humanheight gives researchers increased insight as to the nature of the landscapes being viewed in environments without hazy atmospheres or familiar landmarks humans rely on stereoscopic clues to judge distance single camera viewpoints are therefore more difficult to interpret multiple camera stereoscopic systems like the pancam address this problem with unmanned space exploration clinical uses stereogram cards and vectographs are used by optometrists ophthalmologists orthoptists and vision therapists in the diagnosis and treatment of binocular vision and accommodative disorders mathematical scientific and engineering uses stereopair photographs provided a way for 3dimensional 3d visualisations of aerial photographs since about 2000 3d aerial views are mainly based on digital stereo imaging technologies one issue related to stereo images is the amount of disk space needed to save such files indeed a stereo image usually requires twice as much space as a normal image recently computer vision scientists tried to find techniques to attack the visual redundancy of stereopairs with the aim to define compressed version of stereopair files in biology and chemistry complex molecular structures are often rendered in stereopairs the same technique can also be applied to any mathematical or scientific or engineering parameter that is a function of two variables although in these cases it is more common for a threedimensional effect to be created using a distorted mesh or shading as if from a distant light source bibliography footnotes simmons gordon marchapril 1996 clarence g henning the man behind the macro stereo world 23 1 3743 willke mark a zakowski ron marchapril 1996 a close look into the realist macro stereo system stereo world 23 1 1435 morgan willard d lester henry m october 1954 stereo realist manual and 14 contributors new york morgan lester oclc789470 scott b steinman barbara a steinman and ralph philip garzia 2000 foundations of binocular vision a clinical perspective mcgrawhill medical isbn0838526705 archival collections guide to the edward r frank stereograph collection special collections and archives the uc irvine libraries irvine california niagara falls stereo cards rg 541 brock university library digital repository other wikimedia commons has media related to stereoscopy stereoscopy at curlie durham visualization laboratory stereoscopic imaging methods and software tools university of washington libraries digital collections stereocard collection stereographic views of louisville and beyond 1850s1930 from the university of louisville libraries stereoscopy on flickr international stereoscopic union american university in cairo rare books and special collections digital library underwood underwood egypt stereoviews collection views of california and the west ca 18671903 the bancroft library 3d stereoscopy community museum exhibition on the history of stereographs and stereoscopes 18501930 vtestereoscopyperception binocular rivalry binocular vision chromostereopsis convergence insufficiency correspondence problem peripheral vision depth perception epipolar geometry kinetic depth effect stereoblindness stereopsis stereopsis recovery stereoscopic acuity displaytechnologies active shutter 3d system anaglyph 3d autostereogram autostereoscopy bubblegram chromadepth headmounted display holography integral imaging lenticular lens multiscopy parallax barrier parallax scrolling polarized 3d system specular holography stereo display stereoscope vectograph virtual retinal display volumetric display wiggle stereoscopy othertechnologies 2d to 3d conversion 2d plus delta 2dplusdepth computer stereo vision multiview video coding parallax scanning pseudoscope stereo photography techniques stereoautograph stereoscopic depth rendition stereoscopic rangefinder stereoscopic spectroscopy stereoscopic video coding producttypes 3d camcorder 3d film 3d television 3denabled mobile phones 4d film bluray 3d digital 3d stereo camera stereo microscope stereoscopic video game virtual reality headset notableproducts amd hd3d dolby 3d fujifilm finepix real 3d infitec masterimage 3d nintendo 3ds new 3ds nvidia 3d vision panavision 3d reald 3d sharp actius rd3d viewmaster xpand 3d miscellany international stereoscopic union stereographer stereoscopic displays and applications vtedisplay technologyvideo displayscurrent generation eidophor electroluminescent display eld electronic paper e ink gyricon light emitting diode display led cathode ray tube crt monoscope liquidcrystal display lcd tft tn led blue phase ips plasma display panel pdp alis digital light processing dlp liquid crystal on silicon lcos next generation organic lightemitting diode oled amoled organic lightemitting transistor olet surfaceconduction electronemitter display sed field emission display fed laser tv quantum dot liquid crystal mems display imod tmos quantum dot display qdled ferro liquid crystal display flcd thickfilm dielectric electroluminescent technology tdel telescopic pixel display tpd laserpowered phosphor display lpd nonvideo electromechanical flipdot splitflap vane eggcrate fiber optic nixie tube vacuum fluorescent display vfd lightemitting electrochemical cell lec lightguide display dotmatrix display sevensegment display ssd ninesegment display fourteensegment display fsd sixteensegment display sisd 3d display stereoscopic autostereoscopic multiscopic hologram holographic display computergenerated holography volumetric musion eyeliner fog display static media movie projector neon sign destination sign slide projector transparency laser beam display capabilities edid cea861 displayid related articles history of display technology largescreen television technology optimum hdtv viewing distance highdynamicrange imaging hdri color light output flexible display comparison of display technology 