engineering this article is about the general field called engineering for the design and building of actual engines see engine for other uses see engineering disambiguation engineering history outline glossary category portal vte the steam engine a major driver in the industrial revolution underscores the importance of engineering in modern history this beam engine is on display in the technical university of madrid engineering is the creative application of science mathematical methods and empirical evidence to the innovation design construction operation and maintenance of structures machines materials devices systems processes and organizations for the benefit of humankind the discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics applied science and types of application see glossary of engineering the term engineering is derived from the latin ingenium meaning cleverness and ingeniare meaning to contrive devise definition the american engineers council for professional development ecpd the predecessor of abet has defined engineering as the creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures machines apparatus or manufacturing processes or works utilizing them singly or in combination or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions all as respects an intended function economics of operation and safety to life and property history history of engineering relief map of the citadel of lille designed in 1668 by vauban the foremost military engineer of his age engineering has existed since ancient times when humans devised inventions such as the wedge lever wheel and pulley the term engineering is derived from the word engineer which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer literally one who operates an engine referred to a constructor of military engines in this context now obsolete an engine referred to a military machine ie a mechanical contraption used in war for example a catapult notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps eg the us army corps of engineers the word engine itself is of even older origin ultimately deriving from the latin ingenium c 1250 meaning innate quality especially mental power hence a clever invention later as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such nonmilitary projects and those involved in the discipline of military engineering ancient era the ancient romans built aqueducts to bring a steady supply of clean and fresh water to cities and towns in the empire the pyramids in egypt the acropolis and the parthenon in greece the roman aqueducts via appia and the colosseum teotihuacn the great wall of china the brihadeeswarar temple of thanjavur among many others stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers other monuments no longer standing such as the hanging gardens of babylon and the pharos of alexandria were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the seven wonders of the ancient world the earliest civil engineer known by name is imhotep ancient greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains the antikythera mechanism the first known mechanical computer ancient chinese greek roman and hungarian armies employed military machines and inventions such as artillery which was developed by the greeks around the 4th century bc the trireme the ballista and the catapult in the middle ages the trebuchet was developed renaissance era a waterpowered mine hoist used for raising ore ca 1556 before the development of modern engineering mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen such as millwrights clock makers instrument makers and surveyors aside from these professions universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology32 a standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise de re metallica 1556 which also contains sections on geology mining and chemistry de re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years modern era the science of classical mechanics sometimes called newtonian mechanics formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering with the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends similarly in addition to military and civil engineering the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the industrial revolution john smeaton was the first selfproclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the father of civil engineering he was an english civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges canals harbours and lighthouses he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist using a model water wheel smeaton conducted experiments for seven years determining ways to increase efficiency69 smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the newcomn steam engine smeaton designed the third eddystone lighthouse 175559 where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime a form of mortar which will set under water and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse he is important in the history rediscovery of and development of modern cement because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain hydraulicity in lime work which led ultimately to the invention of portland cement applied science lead to the development of the steam engine the sequence of events began with the invention the barometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by evangelista torricelli in 1643 demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by otto von guericke using the magdeburg hemispheres in 1656 laboratory experiments by denis papin who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of a piston which he published in 1707 edward somerset 2nd marquess of worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a coffee percolator samuel morland a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps left notes at the vauxhall ordinance office on a steam pump design that thomas savery read in 1698 savery built a steam pump called the miners friend it employed both vacuum and pressure32 the application of steam powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for blast furnaces lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century the higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in blast furnaces which enabled the transition from charcoal to coke new steel making processes such as the bessemer process and the open hearth furnace ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century the application of the steam engine allowed coke to be substituted for charcoal in iron making lowering the cost of iron which provided engineers with a new material for building bridges this bridge was made of cast iron which was soon displaced by less brittle wrought iron as a structural material one of the most famous engineers of the mid 19th century was isambard kingdom brunel who built railroads dockyards and steamships the industrial revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts which led to the development of several machine tools boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until john wilkinson invented his boring machine which is considered the first machine tool the united states census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2000 there was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at cambridge until 1875 and no chair of engineering at oxford until 1907 germany established technical universities earlier the foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of alessandro volta michael faraday georg ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872 the theoretical work of james maxwell see maxwells equations and heinrich hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics the later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of sir george cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering the first phd in engineering technically applied science and engineering awarded in the united states went to josiah willard gibbs at yale university in 1863 it was also the second phd awarded in science in the us only a decade after the successful flights by the wright brothers there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in world war i meanwhile research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments main branches of engineering for a topical guide to this subject see outline of engineering hoover dam engineering is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several subdisciplines although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline he or she may become multidisciplined through experience engineering is often characterized as having four main branches chemical engineering civil engineering electrical engineering and mechanical engineering chemical engineering chemical engineering chemical engineering is the application of physics chemistry biology and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals specialty chemicals petroleum refining microfabrication fermentation and biomolecule production civil engineering civil engineering civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works such as infrastructure airports roads railways water supply and treatment etc bridges tunnels dams and buildings electrical engineering electrical engineering electrical engineering is the design study and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems such as broadcast engineering electrical circuits generators motors electromagneticelectromechanical devices electronic devices electronic circuits optical fibers optoelectronic devices computer systems telecommunications instrumentation controls and electronics mechanical engineering mechanical engineering mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems such as power and energy systems aerospaceaircraft products weapon systems transportation products engines compressors powertrains kinematic chains vacuum technology vibration isolation equipment manufacturing and mechatronics other branches list of engineering branches beyond these big 4 a number of other branches are recognized though many can be thought of as subdisciplines of the four major branches or as crosscurricular disciplines among multiple historically naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering acoustical engineering corrosion engineering instrumentation and control aerospace automotive computer electronic information engineering petroleum environmental systems audio software architectural agricultural biosystems biomedical these and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the uk engineering council new specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches for example earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies environmental science engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering practice one who practices engineering is called an engineer and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as professional engineer chartered engineer incorporated engineer ingenieur european engineer or designated engineering representative methodology design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from many fields as the system involves mechanical electromagnetic and chemical processes the blades rotor and stator as well as the steam cycle all need to be carefully designed and optimized in the engineering design process engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions more than ever engineers are now required to have a proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects as a result many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their career if multiple solutions exist engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements the crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify understand and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result it is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product rather it must also meet further requirements constraints may include available resources physical imaginative or technical limitations flexibility for future modifications and additions and other factors such as requirements for cost safety marketability productivity and serviceability by understanding the constraints engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated a general methodology and epistemology of engineering can be inferred from the historical case studies and comments provided by walter vincenti though vincentis case studies are from the domain of aeronautical engineering his conclusions can be transferred into many other branches of engineering too according to billy vaughn koen the engineering method is the use of heuristics to cause the best change in a poorly understood situation within the available resources koen argues that the definition of what makes one an engineer should not be based on what he produces but rather how he goes about it problem solving this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed august 2013 learn how and when to remove this template message a drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives engineering is applied to design with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science engineers use their knowledge of science mathematics logic economics and appropriate experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a problem creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem often allows them to analyze it sometimes definitively and to test potential solutions usually multiple reasonable solutions exist so engineers must evaluate the different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements genrich altshuller after gathering statistics on a large number of patents suggested that compromises are at the heart of lowlevel engineering designs while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to fullscale production they use among other things prototypes scale models simulations destructive tests nondestructive tests and stress tests testing ensures that products will perform as expected engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure however the greater the safety factor the less efficient the design may be the study of failed products is known as forensic engineering and can help the product designer in evaluating his or her design in the light of real conditions the discipline is of greatest value after disasters such as bridge collapses when careful analysis is needed to establish the cause or causes of the failure computer use a computer simulation of high velocity air flow around a space shuttle orbiter during reentry solutions to the flow require modelling of the combined effects of fluid flow and the heat equations as with all modern scientific and technological endeavors computers and software play an increasingly important role as well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications computeraided technologies specifically for engineering computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes which can be solved using numerical methods one of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computeraided design cad software like catia autodesk inventor dss solidworks or pro engineer which enables engineers to create 3d models 2d drawings and schematics of their designs cad together with digital mockup dmu and cae software such as finite element method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and timeconsuming physical prototypes these allow products and components to be checked for flaws assess fit and assembly study ergonomics and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses temperatures electromagnetic emissions electrical currents and voltages digital logic levels fluid flows and kinematics access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software there are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computeraided manufacturing cam software to generate cnc machining instructions manufacturing process management software for production engineering eda for printed circuit board pcb and circuit schematics for electronic engineers mro applications for maintenance management and architecture engineering and construction aec software for civil engineering in recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as product lifecycle management plm social context this section possibly contains original research please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations statements consisting only of original research should be removed july 2010 learn how and when to remove this template message robotic kismet can produce a range of facial expressions the engineering profession engages in a wide range of activities from large collaboration at the societal level and also smaller individual projects almost all engineering projects are obligated to some sort of financing agency a company a set of investors or a government the few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and opendesign engineering by its very nature engineering has interconnections with society culture and human behavior every product or construction used by modern society is influenced by engineering the results of engineering activity influence changes to the environment society and economies and its application brings with it a responsibility and public safety engineering projects can be subject to controversy examples from different engineering disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons the three gorges dam the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil in response some western engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development subsaharan africa in particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many african nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid radar gps lidar are all combined to provide proper navigation and obstacle avoidance vehicle developed for 2007 darpa urban challenge all overseas development and relief ngos make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios a number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of mankind engineers without borders engineers against poverty registered engineers for disaster relief engineers for a sustainable world engineering for change engineering ministries international engineering companies in many established economies are facing significant challenges with regard to the number of professional engineers being trained compared with the number retiring this problem is very prominent in the uk where engineering has a poor image and low status rather than it being fundamentally an unattractive career much work is needed to avoid huge problems in the uk and other western economies code of ethics engineering ethics many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large the national society of professional engineers code of ethics states mwparseroutput templatequoteoverflowhiddenmargin1em 0padding0 40pxmwparseroutput templatequote templatequotecitelineheight15emtextalignleftpaddingleft16emmargintop0 engineering is an important and learned profession as members of this profession engineers are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people accordingly the services provided by engineers require honesty impartiality fairness and equity and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health safety and welfare engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct in canada many engineers wear the iron ring as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession relationships with other disciplines science engineers scientists and technicians at work on target positioner inside national ignition facility nif target chamber scientists study the world as it is engineers create the world that has never beentheodore von krmn there exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice in engineering one applies science both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes conversely in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena thus becoming for the moment scientists or more precisely engineering scientists in the book what engineers know and how they know it walter vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research first it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner there is a real and important difference between engineering and physics as similar to any science field has to do with technology an example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the navierstokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft or the use of miners rule to calculate fatigue damage second engineering research employs many semiempirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research one example being the method of parameter variation as stated by fung et al in the revision to the classic engineering text foundations of solid mechanics engineering is quite different from science scientists try to understand nature engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature engineers stress innovation and invention to embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms and design something that people can use that something can be a complex system device a gadget a material a method a computing program an innovative experiment a new solution to a problem or an improvement on what already exists since a design has to be realistic and functional it must have its geometry dimensions and characteristics data defined in the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions most often they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge thus they studied mathematics physics chemistry biology and mechanics often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession thus engineering sciences were born although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles engineers must also take into account safety efficiency economy reliability and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution medicine and biology leonardo da vinci seen here in a selfportrait has been described as the epitome of the artistengineer he is also known for his studies on human anatomy and physiology the study of the human body albeit from different directions and for different purposes is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines medicine aims to sustain repair enhance and even replace functions of the human body if necessary through the use of technology genetically engineered mice expressing green fluorescent protein which glows green under blue light the central mouse is wildtype modern medicine can replace several of the bodys functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as for example brain implants and pacemakers the fields of bionics and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems conversely some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology this has led to fields such as artificial intelligence neural networks fuzzy logic and robotics there are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine both fields provide solutions to real world problems this often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both medicine in part studies the function of the human body the human body as a biological machine has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods the heart for example functions much like a pump these similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines newly emerging branches of science such as systems biology are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering such as systems modeling and computational analysis to the description of biological systems art there are connections between engineering and art for example architecture landscape architecture and industrial design even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a universitys faculty of engineering the art institute of chicago for instance held an exhibition about the art of nasas aerospace design among famous historical figures leonardo da vinci is a wellknown renaissance artist and engineer and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering business business engineering deals with the relationship between professional engineering it systems business administration and change management engineering management or management engineering is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector the demand for managementfocused engineers or from the opposite perspective managers with an understanding of engineering has resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles during an engineering management course students will develop industrial engineering skills knowledge and expertise alongside knowledge of business administration management techniques and strategic thinking engineers specializing in change management must have indepth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods professional engineers often train as certified management consultants in the very specialized field of management consulting applied to engineering practice or the engineering sector this work often deals with large scale complex business transformation or business process management initiatives in aerospace and defence automotive oil and gas machinery pharmaceutical food and beverage electrical electronics power distribution generation utilities and transportation systems this combination of technical engineering practice management consulting practice industry sector knowledge and change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives these initiatives are typically sponsored by clevel executives other fields in political science the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of social engineering and political engineering which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles financial engineering has similarly borrowed the term part of a series onscience 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engineering clinical research computer science ecology economics electrical and electronics engineering engineering entomology environmental science genetics geography geology machine vision mechanical engineering medicine meteoritics meteorology physics probability and statistics robotics speciation structural engineering outline portal categoryvte engineering portal outline of engineering lists list of engineering topics list of engineers engineering society list of aerospace engineering topics list of basic chemical engineering topics list of electrical engineering topics list of genetic engineering topics list of mechanical engineering topics list of nanoengineering topics list of software engineering topics glossaries glossary of engineering glossary of areas of mathematics glossary of biology glossary of chemistry glossary of physics related subjects controversies over the term engineer design earthquake engineering engineer engineering economics engineering education engineering education research engineers without borders forensic engineering global engineering education industrial design infrastructure mathematics opensource hardware reverse engineering science science and technology structural failure sustainable engineering women in engineering planned obsolescence mwparseroutput refbeginfontsize90marginbottom05emmwparseroutput refbeginhangingindentsulliststyletypenonemarginleft0mwparseroutput refbeginhangingindentsullimwparseroutput refbeginhangingindentsdlddmarginleft0paddingleft32emtextindent32emliststylenonemwparseroutput refbegin100fontsize100 blockley david 2012 engineering a very short introduction new york oxford university press isbn9780199578696 dorf richard ed 2005 the engineering handbook 2 ed boca raton crc isbn9780849315862 billington david p 19960605 the innovators the engineering pioneers who made america modern wiley new ed edition isbn9780471140269 madhavan guru 2015 applied minds how engineers think ww norton petroski henry 19920331 to engineer is human the role of failure in successful design vintage isbn9780679734161 lord charles r 20000815 guide to information sources in engineering libraries unlimited doi1013361563086999 isbn9781563086991 vincenti walter g 19930201 what engineers know and how they know it analytical studies from aeronautical history the johns hopkins university press isbn9780801845888 the dictionary definition of engineering at wiktionary learning materials related to engineering at wikiversity quotations related to engineering at wikiquote licensure and qualifications for practice national society of professional engineers national academy of engineering nae american society for engineering education asee education programs of the christian enginnering society ces engineering in history bibliography the us library of congress engineering videos at a secondary school level history of engineering bibliography university of minnesota vteengineeringcivil architectural construction environmental 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