computer science computer sciences redirects here for the american corporation see computer sciences corporation computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of information and computation together with practical techniques for the implementation and application of these foundations computer science history outline glossary category portal vte part of a series onscience formal formal logic mathematics mathematical statistics theoretical computer science game theory decision theory information theory systems theory control theory physical physics classical modern applied theoretical experimental computational mechanics classicalanalyticalcontinuumfluidsolid electromagnetism thermodynamics molecular atomic nuclear particle condensed matter plasma quantum mechanicsintroduction quantum field theory special relativity general relativity string theory chemistry inorganic organic analytical physical acidbase supramolecular solidstate nuclear environmental sustainable green 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computation and the design of computational systems its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines some fields such as computational complexity theory which explores the fundamental properties of computational and intractable problems are highly abstract while fields such as computer graphics emphasize realworld visual applications other fields focus on challenges in implementing computation for example programming language theory considers various approaches to the description of computation while the study of computer programming itself investigates various aspects of the use of programming languages and complex systems humancomputer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful usable and universally accessible to humans history history of computer science history of computing hardware hardware before 1960 hardware 1960s to present software software unix free software and opensource software computer science artificial intelligence compiler construction computer science operating systems programming languages prominent pioneers software engineering modern concepts generalpurpose cpus graphical user interface internet laptops personal computers video games world wide web by country bulgaria poland romania soviet bloc soviet union yugoslavia timeline of computing before 1950 19501979 19801989 19901999 20002009 20102019 more timelines glossary of computer science categoryvte charles babbage sometimes referred to as the father of computing ada lovelace is often credited with publishing the first algorithm intended for processing on a computer the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity aiding in computations such as multiplication and division further algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment wilhelm schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623 during the 1940s as new and more powerful computing machines were developed the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors since practical computers became available many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology from usage only by experts and professionals to a nearubiquitous user base initially computers were quite costly and some degree of humanitarian aid was needed for efficient usein part from professional computer operators as computer adoption became more widespread and affordable less human assistance was needed for common usage see also history of computing and history of informatics contributions the german military used the enigma machine shown here during world war ii for communications they wanted kept secret the largescale decryption of enigma traffic at bletchley park was an important factor that contributed to allied victory in wwii despite its short history as a formal academic discipline computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and societyin fact along with electronics it is a founding science of the current epoch of human history called the information age and a driver of the information revolution seen as the third major leap in human technological progress after the industrial revolution 17501850 ce and the agricultural revolution 80005000 bc these contributions include the start of the digital revolution which includes the current information age and the internet a formal definition of computation and computability and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems the concept of a programming language a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction in cryptography breaking the enigma code was an important factor contributing to the allied victory in world war ii scientific computing enabled practical evaluation of processes and situations of great complexity as well as experimentation entirely by software it also enabled advanced study of the mind and mapping of the human genome became possible with the human genome project distributed computing projects such as foldinghome explore protein folding algorithmic trading has increased the efficiency and liquidity of financial markets by using artificial intelligence machine learning and other statistical and numerical techniques on a large scale computer graphics and computergenerated imagery have become ubiquitous in modern entertainment particularly in television cinema advertising animation and video games even films that feature no explicit cgi are usually filmed now on digital cameras or edited or postprocessed using a digital video editor simulation of various processes including computational fluid dynamics physical electrical and electronic systems and circuits as well as societies and social situations notably war games along with their habitats among many others modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are spice as well as software for physical realization of new or modified designs the latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits artificial intelligence is becoming increasingly important as it gets more efficient and complex there are many applications of ai some of which can be seen at home such as robotic vacuum cleaners it is also present in video games and on the modern battlefield in drones antimissile systems and squad support robots humancomputer interaction combines novel algorithms with design strategies that enable rapid human performance low error rates ease in learning and high satisfaction researchers use ethnographic observation and automated data collection to understand user needs then conduct usability tests to refine designs key innovations include the direct manipulation selectable web links touchscreen designs mobile applications and virtual reality etymology see also informatics etymology although first proposed in 1956 in which louis fein argues for the creation of a graduate school in computer sciences analogous to the creation of harvard business school in 1921 his efforts and those of others such as numerical analyst george forsythe were rewarded universities went on to create such programs starting with purdue in 1962 to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment while not necessarily involving computers the first scientific institution to use the term was the department of datalogy at the university of copenhagen founded in 1969 with peter naur being the first professor in datalogy the term is used mainly in the scandinavian countries an alternative term also proposed by naur is data science this is now used for a distinct field of data analysis including statistics and databases also in the early days of computing a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the communications of the acmturingineer turologist flowchartsman applied metamathematician and applied epistemologist in the us however informatics is linked with applied computing or computing in the context of another domain a folkloric quotation often attributed tobut almost certainly not first formulated byedsger dijkstra states that computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes the design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science for example the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems however there has been much crossfertilization of ideas between the various computerrelated disciplines computer science research also often intersects other disciplines such as philosophy cognitive science linguistics mathematics physics biology statistics and logic computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science the relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue which is further muddied by disputes over what the term software engineering means and how computer science is defined the academic political and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with computational science both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research philosophy philosophy of computer science a number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science peter wegner argued that those paradigms are science technology and mathematics areas of computer science further information outline of computer science as a discipline computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software csab formerly called computing sciences accreditation boardwhich is made up of representatives of the association for computing machinery acm and the ieee computer society ieee cs theoretical computer science theoretical computer science theoretical computer science is mathematical and abstract in spirit but it derives its motivation from practical and everyday computation its aim is to understand the nature of computation and as a consequence of this understanding provide more efficient methodologies all studies related to mathematical logic and formal concepts and methods could be considered as theoretical computer science provided that the motivation is clearly drawn from the field of computing data structures and algorithms data structures and algorithms are the study of commonly used computational methods and their computational efficiency on2 analysis of algorithms algorithms data structures combinatorial optimization computational geometry theory of computation theory of computation according to peter denning the fundamental question underlying computer science is what can be efficiently automated theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations in an effort to answer the first question computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation the second question is addressed by computational complexity theory which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems the famous p np problem one of the millennium prize problems is an open problem in the theory of computation p np gnitirwterces automata theory computability theory computational complexity theory cryptography quantum computing theory information and coding theory information theory and coding theory information theory is related to the quantification of information this was developed by claude shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data coding theory is the study of the properties of codes systems for converting information from one form to another and their fitness for a specific application codes are used for data compression cryptography error detection and correction and more recently also for network coding codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods programming language theory programming language theory programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design implementation analysis characterization and classification of programming languages and their individual features it falls within the discipline of computer science both depending on and affecting mathematics software engineering and linguistics it is an active research area with numerous dedicated academic journals x int displaystyle gamma vdash xtextint type theory compiler design programming languages formal methods formal methods formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the specification development and verification of software and hardware systems the use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that as in other engineering disciplines performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design they form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering especially where safety or security is involved formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework for testing for industrial use tool support is required however the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of highintegrity and lifecritical systems where safety or security is of utmost importance formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals in particular logic calculi formal languages automata theory and program semantics but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specification and verification computer systems computer architecture and computer engineering computer architecture and computer engineering computer architecture or digital computer organization is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system it focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory the field often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional performance and cost goals digital logic microarchitecture multiprocessing ubiquitous computing systems architecture operating systems computer performance analysis computer performance computer performance analysis is the study of work flowing through computers with the general goals of improving throughput controlling response time using resources efficiently eliminating bottlenecks and predicting performance under anticipated peak loads concurrent parallel and distributed systems concurrency computer science and distributed computing concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously and potentially interacting with each other a number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including petri nets process calculi and the parallel random access machine model a distributed system extends the idea of concurrency onto multiple computers connected through a network computers within the same distributed system have their own private memory and information is often exchanged among themselves to achieve a common goal computer networks computer network this branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide computer security and cryptography computer security and cryptography computer security is a branch of computer technology with an objective of protecting information from unauthorized access disruption or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users cryptography is the practice and study of hiding encryption and therefore deciphering decryption information modern cryptography is largely related to computer science for many encryption and decryption algorithms are based on their computational complexity databases database a database is intended to organize store and retrieve large amounts of data easily digital databases are managed using database management systems to store create maintain and search data through database models and query languages informatics practices wikibooks has a book on the topic of informatics practices for class xi cbse informatics practices ip is a field of softwarerelated study the course mainly covers coding software and networking concepts this field is comparable to computer science but lacks the hardware concepts while focusing more on networking concepts than computer science this branch of information science and computer science mainly focuses on the study of information processing particularly with respect to system integration and human interactions with machine and data computer applications computer graphics and visualization computer graphics computer science computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents and involves the synthesis and manipulation of image data the study is connected to many other fields in computer science including computer vision image processing and computational geometry and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video games humancomputer interaction humancomputer interaction research that develops theories principles and guidelines for user interface designers so they can create satisfactory user experiences with desktop laptop and mobile devices scientific computing scientific computing or computational science is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyze and solve scientific problems in practical use it is typically the application of computer simulation and other forms of computation to problems in various scientific disciplines numerical analysis computational physics computational chemistry bioinformatics artificial intelligence artificial intelligence artificial intelligence ai aims to or is required to synthesize goalorientated processes such as problemsolving decisionmaking environmental adaptation learning and communication found in humans and animals from its origins in cybernetics and in the dartmouth conference 1956 artificial intelligence research has been necessarily crossdisciplinary drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics symbolic logic semiotics electrical engineering philosophy of mind neurophysiology and social intelligence ai is associated in the popular mind with robotic development but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of software development which require computational understanding the starting point in the late 1940s was alan turings question can computers think and the question remains effectively unanswered although the turing test is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence but the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex realworld data machine learning computer vision image processing pattern recognition data mining evolutionary computation knowledge representation and reasoning natural language processing robotics software engineering software engineering see also computer programming software engineering is the study of designing implementing and modifying software in order to ensure it is of high quality affordable maintainable and fast to build it is a systematic approach to software design involving the application of engineering practices to software software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing of softwareit doesnt just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software but its internal maintenance and arrangement the great insights of computer science the philosopher of computing bill rapaport noted three great insights of computer science gottfried wilhelm leibnizs george booles alan turings claude shannons and samuel morses insight there are only two objects that a computer has to deal with in order to represent anything all the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 or any other bistable pair that can flipflop between two easily distinguishable states such as onoff magnetizeddemagnetized highvoltagelowvoltage etc see also digital physics alan turings insight there are only five actions that a computer has to perform in order to do anything every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions move left one location move right one location read symbol at current location print 0 at current location print 1 at current location see also turing machine corrado bhm and giuseppe jacopinis insight there are only three ways of combining these actions into more complex ones that are needed in order for a computer to do anything only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones sequence first do this then do that selection if suchandsuch is the case then do this else do that repetition while suchandsuch is the case do this note that the three rules of boehms and jacopinis insight can be further simplified with the use of goto which means it is more elementary than structured programming see also elementary function arithmetic friedmans grand conjecture academia further information list of computer science conferences and categorycomputer science journals conferences are important events for computer science research during these conferences researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent work and meet unlike in most other academic fields in computer science the prestige of conference papers is greater than that of journal publications programming paradigms programming paradigm programming languages can be leveraged as tools to accomplish a variety of tasks therefore different programming paradigms exist a few basic programming paradigms used throughout computer science are objectoriented programming objectoriented programming is a programming paradigm based on the concept of objects which may contain data in the form of fields often known as attributes and code in the form of procedures often known as methods a feature of objects is that an objects procedures can access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated thus objectoriented computer programs are made out of objects that interact with one another imperative programming in computer science imperative programming is a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a programs state in much the same way that the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates functional programming in computer science functional programming is a programming paradigma style of building the structure and elements of computer programsthat treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids changingstate and mutable data it is a declarative programming paradigm which means programming is done with expressions or declarations instead of statements procedural programming procedural programming is a programming paradigm derived from structured programming based upon the concept of the procedure call procedures also known as routines subroutines or functions not to be confused with mathematical functions but similar to those used in functional programming simply contain a series of computational steps to be carried out most programming languages offer support for multiple programming paradigms making the distinction more a matter of style than of technical capabilities education since computer science is a relatively new field it is not as widely taught in schools and universities as other academic subjects for example in 2014 codeorg estimated that only 10 percent of high schools in the united states offered computer science education in most countries there is a significant gender gap in computer science education for example in the us about 20 of computer science degrees in 2012 were conferred to women outline of computer science and glossary of computer science computer science portal association for computing machinery computer science teachers association glossary of computer science informatics and engineering informatics information engineering information technology list of academic computer science departments list of computer scientists list of publications in computer science list of pioneers in computer science list of unsolved problems in computer science outline of software engineering technology transfer in computer science turing award computer science wikipedia book notes mwparseroutput refbeginfontsize90marginbottom05emmwparseroutput refbeginhangingindentsulliststyletypenonemarginleft0mwparseroutput refbeginhangingindentsullimwparseroutput refbeginhangingindentsdlddmarginleft0paddingleft32emtextindent32emliststylenonemwparseroutput refbegin100fontsize100 overview tucker allen b 2004 computer science handbook 2nd ed chapman and hallcrc isbn158488360x within more than 70 chapters every one new or significantly revised one can find any kind of information and references about computer science one can imagine christoph meinel zentralblatt math van leeuwen jan 1994 handbook of theoretical computer science the mit press isbn0262720205 the books can be used by anyone wanting simply to gain an understanding of one of these areas or by someone desiring to be in research in a topic or by instructors wishing to find timely information on a subject they are teaching outside their major areas of expertise rocky ross sigact news ralston anthony reilly edwin d hemmendinger david 2000 encyclopedia of computer science 4th ed groves dictionaries isbn156159248x since 1976 this has been the definitive reference work on computer computing and computer science alphabetically arranged and classified into broad subject areas the entries cover hardware computer systems information and data software the mathematics of computing theory of computation methodologies applications and computing milieu the editors have done a commendable job of blending historical perspective and practical reference information the encyclopedia remains essential for most public and academic library reference collections joe accardin northeastern illinois univ chicago edwin d reilly 2003 milestones in computer science and information technology greenwood publishing group isbn9781573565219 selected literature knuth donald e 1996 selected papers on computer science csli publications cambridge university press collier bruce the little engine that couldve the calculating machines of charles babbage garland publishing inc isbn0824000439 cohen bernard 2000 howard aiken portrait of a computer pioneer the mit press isbn9780262531795 tedre matti 2014 the science of computing shaping a discipline crc press taylor francis randell brian 1973 the origins of digital computers selected papers springerverlag isbn354006169x covering a period from 1966 to 1993 its interest lies not only in the content of each of these papers still timely today but also in their being put together so that ideas expressed at different times complement each other nicely n bernard zentralblatt math articles peter j denning is computer science science communications of the acm april 2005 peter j denning great principles in computing curricula technical symposium on computer science education 2004 research evaluation for computer science informatics europe report shorter journal version bertrand meyer christine choppy jan van leeuwen and jorgen staunstrup research evaluation for computer science in communications of the acm vol 52 no 4 pp3134 april 2009 curriculum and classification association for computing machinery 1998 acm computing classification system 1998 joint task force of association for computing machinery acm association for information systems ais and ieee computer society ieee cs computing curricula 2005 the overview report september 30 2005 norman gibbs allen tucker a model curriculum for a liberal arts degree in computer science communications of the acm volume 29 issue 3 march 1986 computer scienceat wikipedias sister projects definitions from wiktionary media from wikimedia commons news from wikinews quotations from wikiquote texts from wikisource textbooks from wikibooks resources from wikiversity library resources about computer science resources in your library resources in other libraries computer science at curlie scholarly societies in computer science what is computer science best papers awards in computer science since 1996 photographs of computer scientists by bertrand meyer eecsberkeleyedu bibliography and academic search engines citeseerx article search engine digital library and repository for scientific and academic papers with a focus on computer and information science dblp computer science bibliography article computer science bibliography website hosted at universitt trier in germany the collection of computer science bibliographies article professional organizations association for computing machinery ieee computer society informatics europe aaai aaas computer science misc computer sciencestack exchange a communityrun questionandanswer site for computer science what is computer science is computer science science computer science software must be considered as an independent discipline vtemajor fields of computer sciencenote this template roughly follows the 2012 acm computing classification systemhardware printed circuit board peripheral integrated circuit very large scale integration systems on chip socs energy consumption green computing electronic design automation hardware acceleration computer systemsorganization computer architecture embedded system realtime computing dependability networks network architecture network protocol network components network scheduler network performance evaluation network service software organization interpreter middleware virtual machine operating system software quality software notationsand tools programming paradigm programming language compiler domainspecific language modeling language software framework integrated development environment software configuration management software library software repository software development software development process requirements analysis software design software construction software deployment software maintenance programming team opensource model theory of computation model of computation formal language automata theory computational complexity theory logic semantics algorithms algorithm design analysis of algorithms algorithmic efficiency randomized algorithm computational geometry mathematicsof computing discrete mathematics probability statistics mathematical software information theory mathematical analysis numerical analysis informationsystems database management system information storage systems enterprise information system social information systems geographic information system decision support system process control system multimedia information system data mining digital library computing platform digital marketing world wide web information retrieval security cryptography formal methods security services intrusion detection system hardware security network security information security application security humancomputerinteraction interaction design social computing ubiquitous computing visualization accessibility concurrency concurrent computing parallel computing distributed computing multithreading multiprocessing artificialintelligence natural language processing knowledge representation and reasoning computer vision automated planning and scheduling search methodology control method philosophy of artificial intelligence distributed artificial intelligence machine learning supervised learning unsupervised learning reinforcement learning multitask learning crossvalidation graphics animation rendering image manipulation graphics processing unit mixed reality virtual reality image compression solid modeling appliedcomputing ecommerce enterprise software computational mathematics computational physics computational chemistry computational biology computational social science computational engineering computational healthcare digital art electronic publishing cyberwarfare electronic voting video games word processing operations research educational technology document management book category portal wikiproject commons vtesoftware engineeringfields computer programming requirements engineering software deployment software design software maintenance software testing systems analysis formal methods concepts data modeling enterprise architecture functional specification modeling language orthogonality programming paradigm software software archaeology software architecture software configuration management software development methodology software development process software quality software quality assurance software verification and validation structured analysis orientations agile aspectoriented object orientation ontology service orientation sdlc modelsdevelopmental agile eup executable uml incremental model iterative model prototype model rad up scrum spiral model vmodel waterfall model xp other spice cmmi data model er model function model information model metamodeling object model systems model view model languages idef uml usl sysml softwareengineers victor basili kent beck grady booch fred brooks barry boehm peter chen danese cooper ward cunningham tom demarco edsger w dijkstra delores m etter martin fowler adele goldstine margaret hamilton c a r hoare lois haibt mary jean harrold grace hopper watts humphrey michael a jackson ivar jacobson alan kay nancy leveson stephen j mellor bertrand meyer david parnas trygve reenskaug winston w royce james rumbaugh mary shaw peri tarr elaine weyuker niklaus wirth edward yourdon related fields computer science computer engineering project management risk management systems engineering category commons vteglossaries of science and engineering aerospace engineering archaeology architecture artificial intelligence astronomy biology botany calculus chemistry civil engineering clinical research computer science ecology economics electrical and electronics engineering engineering entomology environmental science genetics geography geology machine vision mathematics mechanical engineering medicine meteorology physics probability and statistics psychiatry robotics speciation structural engineering authority control bne xx525961 bnf cb11932109b data gnd 40268949 hds 8272 lccn sh89003285 